Food-producing Areas Research Articles

Promoting Sustainability: Land Transfer and Income Inequality Among Farm Households

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals emphasize the dangers of inequality and initiatives on how to reduce it. Income inequality is an important part of this and can cause many social problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of land transfer on income inequality of Chinese farm households and its mechanism of action. This study empirically analyzes the impact of land transfer on farm household income inequality based on the OLS model using 27,134 samples from the 2018–2020 China Family Panel Study (CFPS) data. The study finds that land transfer can effectively reduce income inequality among farm households. However, only land transfers out affect income inequality; the effect of land transfers in is not significant. At the same time, there is some heterogeneity in the impact of land transfers on farm household income inequality. The effect is greater in the east and west than in the center. The effect is greater in the north than in the south. The role is greater in food-producing areas than in non-food-producing areas. Mechanism testing shows that land transfer impacts income inequality among farm households by promoting entrepreneurship. Farm households who use the Internet and have stronger social capital gain more from the impact of land transfer on income inequality.

The impact of socialisation services in the whole process of agricultural production on food security—quasi-natural experimental evidence from China

Food security (FS) is an important guarantee for world peace and development and the basis for building a community of human destiny, which has a bearing on the sustainable development and future destiny of humankind. This study empirically analysis the relationship between socialisation services in the whole process of agricultural production (ASS) and guaranteeing FS, as well as the path of their role, using provincial panel data from 2010 to 2022 in China as an example, using the double-difference method. The regression results show that ASS can have the ability to contribute to the level of FS, and the conclusion still holds after a series of robustness tests. The results of the heterogeneity analysis show that the role of ASS in guaranteeing FS receives the influence of the level of agricultural development in each region, while it plays a greater role in the main food-producing areas. The mechanism analysis analyses the mechanism of the role of ASS in the whole process of agricultural production in guaranteeing FS from the three links of pre-production, mid-production and post-production respectively, and finds that ASS in the whole process of agricultural production is able to guarantee FS by reducing the cost of purchasing means of production in the pre-production stage, fostering a new type of agricultural management main body in the mid-production stage, and increasing the income of farmers’ household management in the post-production stage. Based on the above findings, this study proposes corresponding policy recommendations. This study can provide insights for ensuring world FS and contribute to maintaining social stability and development. The conclusions of the study are universally applicable, and all countries in the world can benefit from and draw lessons from it.

Research on the Impact of Agricultural Socialization Services on the Ecological Efficiency of Agricultural Land Use

This study intends to build a theoretical mechanism of agricultural socialization services for the eco-efficiency of agricultural land use from two paths, namely the agricultural division of labor and technological progress, and empirically calibrate the Tobit model based on the data of the China Family Tracking Survey (CFPS) for 4453 farming households in 23 provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) across China. The results of the study show the following: (1) Agricultural socialization services can significantly improve the eco-efficiency of agricultural land use. (2) Hired labor services are more likely to promote eco-efficiency in agricultural land use than farm machinery leasing, especially in major food-producing areas; however, in non-major food-producing areas, the effectiveness of farm machinery leasing services is limited or affected by regional policy differences. (3) In the analysis of the mechanism of agricultural socialization services on the eco-efficiency of agricultural land use, the division of labor in agriculture plays an intermediary role, and the intermediary effect accounts for about 11.4%; however, there is a masking effect of technological progress. This means that China should further develop the role of agricultural socialized services in promoting the ecological efficiency of agricultural land use by developing agricultural socialized service organizations, accelerating the integration of farmers into the modern agricultural division of labor, and promoting the application of green agricultural machinery, among other measures.

Green finance and food production: Evidence from cities in China

In the domain of global socio-economic dynamics, the pivotal role of food production (FP) cannot be overstated. It constitutes the bedrock of fundamental human necessities while being inexorably linked with critical aspects such as economic expansion, societal equilibrium, and geopolitical interplays. The multifaceted nature of FP appears through its direct impact on macroeconomic indicators and its latent influence on international relations and policy-making. This critical nexus underscores the imperative for a comprehensive understanding and strategic management of food production processes to sustain and enhance global socio-economic stability and growth. Investigating the nexus between green finance (GF) and FP is pivotal for ensuring national security and promoting sustainable economic development. This research thus paper examines GF's impact on FP in China as outlined in the 2017 green finance policies. It employs the difference-in-differences (DID) method and analyzes a balanced panel dataset comprising 282 cities in China from 2009 to 2020. The results show that GF has an inhibitory effect on FP, and this remains valid after a range of reliability checks, including parallel trend assessments and placebo tests. Further findings of transmission mechanism analysis indicate that non-agricultural factors and financial exclusion are critical for GF's inhibitory effect on FP. Heterogeneity analyses show that GF's inhibitory effect on FP is more pronounced in the main food-producing areas, the main food-marketing areas, and cities with better infrastructure. The empirical results of this paper comprehensively illustrate GF's impact on FP and how it contributes to the achievement of food security objectives.

Mapping the Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Cropland Abandonment and Recultivation across the Yangtze River Basin

Whether China can achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) largely depends on the ability of main food-producing areas to cope with multiple land use change challenges. Despite the fact that the Yangtze River basin is one of the key regions for China’s food security, the spatiotemporal dynamics of cropland abandonment and recultivation remain largely unexplored in this region. The present study assesses the evolution of the agricultural system within the Yangtze River basin between 2000 and 2020 by mapping cropland abandonment and recultivation using MODIS time series and multiple land cover products. The results highlight a widespread cropland abandonment process (i.e., 10.5% of the total study area between 2000 and 2020), predominantly in Western Sichuan, Eastern Yunnan, and Central Jiangxi. Although 70% of abandoned cropland is situated in areas with slopes less than 5°, the highest rates of abandonment are in mountainous regions. However, by 2020, 74% of this abandoned cropland had been recultivated at least once, whereas half of the abandoned croplands got recultivated within three years of their initial abandonment. Hence, as this is one of the first studies that unravels the complex interaction between cropland abandonment and recultivation in a spatiotemporal explicit context, it offers (i) scientists a novel methodological framework to assess agricultural land use issues across large geographical entities, and (ii) policy-makers new insights to support the sustainable transition of the agricultural sector.

Integrated Use of GIS and USLE Models for LULC Change Analysis and Soil Erosion Risk Assessment in the Hulan River Basin, Northeastern China

The Hulan River Basin is located in the black soil region of northeast China. This region is an important food-producing area and the susceptibility of black soil to erosion increases the risk of soil erosion, which is a serious environmental problem that affects agricultural productivity, water supply, and other important aspects of the region. In this paper, the changes in LULC (land use and land cover) in the basin between 2001 and 2020 were thoroughly analysed using GIS (geographic information system) and USLE (universal soil loss equation) models. The soil erosion risk in the Hulan River Basin between 2001 and 2020 was also studied and soil erosion hot spots were identified to target those that remained significant even under the implementation of soil conservation measures. Precipitation data were used to obtain the R factor distribution, LULC classification was adopted to assess the C factor distribution, soil data were employed to estimate the K factor distribution, DEM (Digital Elevation Model) data were used to generate an LS factor map, and slope and LULC data were considered to produce a P factor distribution map. These factors were based on the model parameters of the USLE. The findings of LULC change analysis over the last 20 years indicated that, while there have been nonobvious changes, agricultural land has continued to occupy the bulk of the area in the Hulan River Basin. The increase in areas used for human activities was the most notable trend. In 2001, the model-predicted soil erosion rate varied between 0 and 120 t/ha/yr, with an average of 4.63 t/ha/yr. By 2020, the estimated soil erosion rate varied between 0 and 193 t/ha/yr, with an average of 7.34 t/ha/yr. The Hulan River Basin was classified into five soil erosion risk categories. Most categories encompassed extremely low-risk levels and, over the past 20 years, the northeastern hilly regions of the basin have experienced the highest concentration of risk change areas. The northeastern hilly and mountainous regions comprised the risk change area and the regions that are most susceptible to erosion exhibited a high concentration of human production activities. In fact, the combined use of GIS and USLE modelling yielded erosion risk areas for mapping risk classes; these results could further assist local governments in improving soil conservation efforts.

Can the Integration of Rural Industries Help Strengthen China’s Agricultural Economic Resilience?

Rural industrial integration is the key to promoting the development of rural industrial restructuring and modernization, and plays a vital role in improving agricultural economic resilience. Based on the evaluation index system of agricultural economic resilience and the level of rural industrial integration development, respectively, this paper uses panel data from 30 provincial administrative regions in China from 2000 to 2020 to empirically test the impact of rural industrial integration development on agricultural economic resilience by using an individual fixed-effects model and a mediating-effects model. The results show that rural industrial integration significantly contributes to enhancing agricultural economic resilience, and the conclusion still holds after a series of robustness tests. There is dimensional and regional heterogeneity in the impact of rural industrial integration on agricultural economic resilience, and the strength of the promotion effect by dimension is in the order of adaptive adjustment capacity, transformation and innovation capacity, and resilience to recovery capacity. In the eastern and central regions, the promotion effect of rural industrial integration on agricultural economic resilience is more significant. In the main food-producing areas, the promotion effect of rural industrial integration on resilience to recovery is significantly slighter than that of non-food-producing regions. Mechanism analysis indicates that regional industrial structure optimization is an essential channel for rural industrial integration to enhance the resilience of the agricultural economy. On this basis, in order to strengthen agricultural economic resilience, provinces should actively explore differentiated industrial integration policies to enhance industrial structure optimization and upgrading, stimulate agricultural economic vitality, and foster the development of China’s agricultural modernization.

The coupling and coordination between food production security and agricultural ecological protection in main food-producing areas of China

Food production security (FPS) and agricultural ecological protection (AEP) are both among the paramount issues affecting the country. There are multiple nonlinear interactions between the two systems, while fewer studies have focused on the interaction patterns between them. To realize China's national strategic goals of food security and ecological protection, the interaction between FPS and AEP needs to be analyzed. Based on the evaluation index system of the coupling and coordination between the two systems, this article analyzes the spatio-temporal differentiation and influencing factors in 13 main food-producing regions in China from 2009 to 2021 using the state-space method and spatial econometric model. The following three conclusions were found: First, the overall development levels of both FPS and AEP show an increasing trend, but regional differences are obvious. Second, the coupling coordination degree and stage of the two systems present an upward trend, but the overall development level remains low, with obvious regional differences: Liaoning is still on the imminent disorder stage, while Heilongjiang has taken the lead into the intermediate coordination stage. Third, the total power of grain machinery and the soybean corn planting ratio have a significant positive impact on the coupling and coordination between FPS and AEP. The results make up for the lack of research on coupling and coordination between FPS and AEP, and provide a feasible development path for exploring coordinated development of FPS and AEP in China's main food-producing areas.

Transboundary water-food nexus based on physical-virtual water embedded in food trade network

This study aimed to analyze the interaction among watershed, food-producing, and food-demanding areas through the connected system of physical-virtual water flows and local food networks in terms of the transboundary water-food nexus, even though they might not be geographically connected. Here, we analyzed the potential food network of local rice among 47 prefectures in Japan using the gravity model and estimated the physical-virtual water flows (PVWFs) by lining the physical water flow in food-producing areas and virtual water flow embedded in the food network. Through in-and out-degree centralities of the food network, we found that the results of degree centrality revealed which prefecture was more influenced by the changes in self-supply ratios (SSRs) of local rice. As all prefectures intended to increase consumption of local rice that was produced in their area, the scale of the food network was reduced, as shown by the decrease in in-and out-degree centralities. Based on the food network, we analyzed the dependency of food-demanding areas on each watershed based on a connected system of PVWFs. In a case study of the Kansai region, the northern watershed directly affected Hyogo, which was also indirectly influenced by Osaka in terms of PVWFs. In the food network with 20% SSR, the PVWF was estimated to be 189.17 × 106 m3·yr−1 from the northern watershed to Osaka in the food-producing area of the northern watershed, showing higher interaction of Osaka with the northern watershed than with other watersheds.

The Impact of COVID-19 Policy Response on Food Prices: A Case Study in China

The COVID-19 pandemic has threatened human lives and caused an unprecedented impact on the global economy, notably on the global food system. COVID-19 itself and its policy response have severely affected food prices. This paper analyzes the short-term and long-term impacts of COVID-19 cases and policy responses (government response index (GRI), economic support index (ESI), stringency index (SI)) on food prices (Chinese cabbage price (CP), pork price (PP), flour price (FP), rice price (RP)) in China’s major food producing areas and major food selling areas through the autoregressive distribution lag error correction (ARDL-ECM) method and graphical analysis. as the purpose is to provide evidence for food security policy regulation to stabilize food prices and improve the food system’s ability to withstand similar emergencies in the future. This study finds that the short-term impact of COVID-19 policy responses on food prices is larger, while the long-term impact is smaller. The impacts of COVID-19 itself and COVID-19 policy responses on food prices vary by food type and food production and consumption region. For food type, the Chinese cabbage price was most affected by the COVID-19 policy response, followed by pork, and the staple food prices (flour price and rice price) were least affected. For regions, the Chinese cabbage price in food producing areas was more influenced by COVID-19 and the pork price in food selling areas was more influenced by COVID-19. For the single indexes, GRI and SI had uneven effects on different food prices. However, ESI had a significant positive impact on the Chinese cabbage price (CP) and pork price(PP), except in Guangdong and Hubei. Staple food prices were almost unaffected by COVID-19 confirmed cases and policy responses. Then, taking the Chinese cabbage price in Beijing, Shandong, and Hubei as an example, we find that “dynamic clearance” influenced the Chinese cabbage price in the short term, and Chinese cabbage price increased largely in the first stage. Finally, the reasons behind the research results of this paper are analyzed, and scientific suggestions are put forward for the implementation of food supply policies to ensure food price stability and food security in the face of similar pandemics in the future.

Effects of Policy Intervention on Food System Resilience to Emergency Risk Shock: Experience from China during COVID-19 Pandemic.

Achieving the goal of zero hunger within the goal of sustainable development requires improving the resilience of food systems to various types of risk shocks; food systems have shown significant vulnerability to COVID-19 outbreaks and transmission. By analyzing the impact of China's lockdown policy and food security emergency policy in 2020 on food prices during the COVID-19 pandemic, we can clarify the role of policy intervention in enhancing the resilience of the food system, which can provide guidance, using China's experience, for dealing with global food safety emergencies in the future. Firstly, we selected Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong as food-consuming areas, and Shandong, Henan, and Hubei as food-producing areas. We also collected food security emergency policy data from the Chinese government website during the COVID-19 pandemic. Secondly, a difference-in-difference method was used to observe that Chinese cabbage and pork prices in the main food-producing areas and food-consuming areas rose more obviously after the adoption of lockdown policy, and Chinese cabbage and pork prices in the food-consuming areas increased more obviously than those in food-producing areas. However, staple food prices have not risen significantly. Thirdly, the response of four kinds of food prices to the food security emergency policy is analyzed quantitatively and graphically using the food price volatility index and food price increase rate; we observed that the response of food prices to the food security emergency policy is related to the food types and regions. For food types, the fluctuation degree and increase in Chinese cabbage and pork prices decreased significantly after the adoption of the food security emergency policy. For regions, when the food security emergency policy was adopted, the food prices in the main food-consuming areas fluctuated more obviously than those in food-producing areas. Finally, we found that the implementation of the transport policy and the joint supply emergency policy in the main producing and consuming areas has played a very significant and positive role in stabilizing food prices.

Impact of outsourcing agricultural production on the frequency and intensity of agrochemical inputs: evidence from a field survey of 1211 farmers in major food-producing areas in China

Impact of outsourcing agricultural production on the frequency and intensity of agrochemical inputs: evidence from a field survey of 1211 farmers in major food-producing areas in China

The role of institutions in food system transformations: lessons learned from transdisciplinary engagements in Ethiopia, the Philippines, and Indonesia

ABSTRACT In many parts of the Global South, food systems are confronted with complex sustainability challenges including high levels of poverty, food insecurity, malnutrition, disempowerment, and degraded environments. Transformation is broadly discussed in research, policy, and planning as the systemic change required to address complex sustainability issues. Transformation of food systems has become a global priority for research and action. However, transformation processes are not neutral, but are associated with losses and gains that are unevenly distributed. Institutions play an important role in relation to how transformation of food systems occur and with what outcomes. Empirical understandings of how institutions can influence transformation processes in a way that avoids risks or the so-called dark side of transformation are needed. This article aims to contribute towards understanding the roles that institutions play in transformation processes in the context of Global South food systems through synthesising insights from transdisciplinary case studies. The three case studies include multi-purpose cooperative institutions in farming areas in southwest Ethiopia, fisherfolk organisations in aquatic food-producing areas in northern Philippines, and Gotong Royong for irrigation canal management for pond aquaculture in Indonesia. The article examines whether and how institutions advance inclusion and participation in food systems, and whether institutions enable or constrain food system actors in mitigating or avoiding transformation risks. The paper reflects on the role of community-level institutions and hybrid governance arrangements, and the interplay of structure and agency in transformation processes.

Islands in the Lake: Environment and Ethnohistory in Xochimilco, New Spain

Islands in the Lake: Environment and Ethnohistory in Xochimilco, New Spain

How Do the Different Types of Land Costs Affect Agricultural Crop-Planting Selections in China?

Land costs in agricultural production are rapidly becoming apparent and increasing in light of the market’s rapid development in rural China. This study examines how agricultural operators’ farming decisions are affected by explicit and implicit costs associated with land transfers. This study first categorizes explicit and implicit land costs theoretically and demonstrates that both types of land costs affect farmers’ crop-planting selections. The study then uses the most recent household survey data from the Chinese Family Database (CFD) and the China Household Finance Survey (CHFS), released in 2017, to empirically test the theoretical analysis and examine the mechanisms underlying the impact of land costs on crop-planting selections. This study makes the case that higher land costs, both explicit and implicit, cause agricultural operators to grow more crops for cash and less for food. The impact of land costs on planting selection can vary depending on the heterogeneity of production areas and geography. In terms of production area heterogeneity, the explicit cost of land has a greater influence on planting decisions in non-major food-producing areas, whereas the implicit cost of land has a greater influence on planting decisions in major food-producing areas. In terms of topographic heterogeneity, the less flat the terrain, the more growers would choose to grow cash crops. A complementary relationship between the two forms of costs is also suggested by this study’s confirmation that explicit and implicit land costs can positively reduce each other’s impact on cropping decisions. Additional mechanism research revealed that explicit and implicit land costs impact crop crop-planting selections. The explicit cost of land primarily affects the local land transfer market effect, whereas the implicit cost of land affects the land transfer service.

Comprehensive analysis of resource utilization efficiency under different tillage systems in North China Plain

Improving agro-resource utilization efficiency is essential for developing an environment-friendly agricultural system. The North China Plain (NCP), China's most important food-producing area, is facing severe resource constraints, such as low carbon and water efficiency. Although there have been many studies on single topic, little is known about the comprehensive assessment of carbon and water utilization in the NCP, as well as the economic benefits under different farmland management measures. We assessed the carbon footprint (CF), water use efficiency (WUE), economic benefits, and their cumulative effects in 2014–2015 during the wheat/maize season and throughout the year. Four tillage systems were investigated: no-till with/without residue retention (NTS/NT0) and conventional tillage with/without residue retention (CTS/CT0). The results indicated that residue retention (RR) reduced area-scaled, yield-scaled, and net income-scaled CF of the entire year by 101.56%, 106.88%, and 103.85%, respectively, compared to residue removal (R0; p < 0.05), due to improved SOC stock, crop yield and net income. Seasonal variations in the effects of no-till (NT) on CF were found. The primary sources of CF components were urea and electrical energy, which contributed 10.0%–34.8% and 5.0%–30.0%, respectively, apart from CF derived from changes in SOC stocks. Compared to R0 (p < 0.05), RR could increase WUE by 5.5%–36.4% while also increasing net income. The highest score of a comprehensive evaluation of carbon and water utilization and economic benefits was CTS, NTS, and CTS during wheat, maize season, and the entire year, respectively. The findings from our study site indicated that residue retention could improve not only the carbon and water use efficiency, but also the farmer income. Residue retention seems to be a promising field management strategy for reducing the environmental footprint of agricultural production, alleviating the agricultural resource pressure, and benefiting farmers in the NCP.

Stunting Rates in a Food-Rich Country: The Argentine Pampas from the 1850s to the 1950s.

Little is known about the effects of malnutrition rates in the long-run. Applying the methodology recommended by the World Health Organization, this study estimates stunting rates for Argentine adult males from the 1850s to the 1950s. We use five large samples of army recruits, prison inmates, militiamen, and electoral records totaling 84,500 cases. These samples provide information about height in Buenos Aires province and the Pampa region, the most fertile, food-producing area of the country. As the study shows, estimated stunting rates remained stable from the 1850s to the 1880s and then declined persistently until the 1950s. The total decline was substantial: if fell from 15.3% in the 1870s to 5.6% in the 1940s, then stagnated. In this 95-year period, stunting rates went from “medium” to “low” levels in the WHO classification of malnutrition intensity. At the end of our study period (the 1950s) the Pampa’s malnutrition rate was only 3.5 to 4 percentage points above contemporary estimates for well-developed economies in Europe and North America. A significant expansion in the region’s production of grains and beef (food availability), combined with a sustained decline in infant mortality (increased health) were probably the two main underlying factors of this long-tern reduction in malnutrition. Yet, this association remains to be determined.

The Economic Origins of Conflict in Africa

We study the impact of global food price shocks on local violence across Africa. In food-producing areas, higher prices reduce conflict over the control of territory (“factor conflict”) and increase conflict over the appropriation of surplus (“output conflict”). We argue that this difference arises because higher prices increase the opportunity cost of soldiering for producers while simultaneously inducing consumers to appropriate surplus as real wages fall. In areas without crop agriculture, higher prices increase both forms of conflict. We validate our local-level findings on output conflict using survey data. Our findings help reconcile a growing but ambiguous literature on the economic roots of conflict.

Soil survey of the east coast and the central highlands indicates need to update Madagascar soil map

ABSTRACT The soil map of Madagascar has not been substantially updated since the 1960s. The number of reported soil profiles that meet the criteria of the Reference Pedon Description – the highest level of data reliability used to ascertain FAO soil unit classification – is also limited for a country-scale soil map. Therefore, we conducted a soil survey in the east coast and the central highlands, the most populated and major food-producing areas in Madagascar, to assess need for reconsideration of the current soil map. As compared to the latest soil map, our results indicate that Ferralsols cover less area on the flat terrains from the east coast to the central highlands and that Geric Ferralsol is more frequently observed soil type rather than Haplic Ferralsol on acidic rocks. The soil type of paddy fields in the southwestern plain of Lake Alaotra – the country’s largest rice-producing region – was Vertisol with a hydragric horizon rather than Histosol. This is attributed to long-term paddy cultivation in the region or the difference of the definition of peat soils between the current and old soil classification systems. The volcanic-origin soils that sporadically exist in the central highlands can be classified as Eutric Andosol rather than Eutric Cambisol. These results show the need for updating the current soil map based on the quantitative data and also have important implications regarding the land history and for appropriate land management in agriculturally intensive areas in the east coast and central highlands of Madagascar.

Revealing the water-energy-food nexus in the Upper Yellow River Basin through multi-objective optimization for reservoir system

Since the 21st century, the natural runoff from the headwater region of the Yellow River has generally been decreasing, resulting in a particularly prominent contradiction in utilization of water resources. In this study, key components were identified from the perspective of water-energy-food (WEF) nexus, and a WEF nexus model was established for the Upper Yellow River Basin (UYRB), taking into consideration the benefits of water supply to the middle and lower reaches of Yellow River, food growth in major food-producing areas in the UYRB and hydropower utilization of the UYR reservoir system. The Multi-start Solver of LINGO and the ε constraint method were used to carry out multi-objective optimization, revealing the trade-off between the WEF benefits. 1) The model computed the Pareto non-inferior set of solutions for the electricity generated by the UYR reservoir system and the degree to which the water demands of the main intake areas (Ningxia and Inner Mongolia irrigated areas, and Toudaoguai section) are satisfied, quantifying the improvement room for the overall benefits brought about by the jointly optimal operation of the WEF sectors. 2) The historical operation of Longyangxia Reservoir, a multi-year storage reservoir, was evaluated, the results of which show that the realization of the WEF benefits is determined by the proper operation of Longyangxia Reservoir. To guarantee the overall benefits in the long term, Longyangxia Reservoir should maintain a high water level. 3) The trade-offs between the WEF benefits under different boundary conditions were discussed, including various initial/final fore-bay water levels of Longyangxia Reservoir and inflows of various total water amounts from the headwater region of the UYRB. The research reveals the WEF nexus in the UYRB under different scenarios, and moreover, the formulated multi-objective optimization model is a good example that can be extended to other similar WEF nexus systems worldwide.