Mixed martial arts (MMA) involve repeated high-intensity, explosive actions that cause substantial fatigue, underscoring the importance of effective recovery strategies. This pilot study investigated short-term performance responses to different post-exercise recovery interventions in Polish MMA athletes. Sixteen athletes (14 males and 2 females) were randomly assigned to cryosauna (CRYO), cold-water immersion (CWI), foam rolling (FR), or passive recovery (CON), with 4 participants per group. The intervention lasted two weeks, with the assigned recovery intervention applied after each training session. Performance was evaluated before and after the intervention using the countermovement jump (CMJ), isokinetic knee peak torque (flexion and extension), and reactive stress tolerance of the determination test (DT). Data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA. CMJ performance improved over time across groups. FR significantly increased knee extension (from 228.67 ± 26.49 N.m to 250.50 ± 22.41 N.m), whereas DT scores significantly increased in the CRYO group (from 247.50 ± 12.50 AU to 291.50 ± 15.61 AU) and significantly decreased in the CON group (from 290.25 ± 24.45 AU to 255.50 ± 24.18 AU). Significant Time × Group interactions were observed for DT (p < 0.001) and knee extension torque (p = 0.008). FR appeared beneficial for knee extension performance, whereas CRYO was associated with improved DT performance. Findings are exploratory and need confirmation in larger, controlled studies.

A single session of explosive resistance exercise can induce acute neuromuscular fatigue, highlighting the need for effective recovery strategies. Foam rolling (FR) is commonly used to facilitate neuromuscular and functional restoration. This study examined whether FR, compared with passive recovery (PR), differentially affects post-exercise balance, jump performance, and lower-limb neuromuscular excitation assessed via surface electromyography. Twenty-one physically active men (age 21.8 ± 1.6years; height 180.7 ± 8.0cm; weight 75.1 ± 10.8kg) completed both FR and PR in a randomized crossover design. Assessments were conducted prior to exercise (pre-test), immediately post-exercise (mid-test), and following the recovery interventions (post-test). All participants performed the squat jump protocol (5 sets × 6 reps at 30% 1RM and 6-8 reps at body weight), followed by performance tests (dynamic balance, static balance, horizontal and vertical jumping) and muscle activity assessment. For physical tests, significant intervention × time interactions were observed for posteromedial and composite scores of dynamic balance, static balance, and horizontal jumping (p = 0.002-0.024; [Formula: see text] = 0.171-0.262), indicating greater improvements following FR compared with PR, whereas no significant interactions were observed for anterior and posterolateral dynamic balance or vertical jumping. Muscle excitation showed significant main effects of time across all measures (p ≤ 0.001-0.032; [Formula: see text] = 0.158-0.598), with intervention × time interactions limited to a subset of muscles (p = 0.011-0.035; [Formula: see text]= 0.154-0.201). FR may help preserve static and dynamic balance, as well as horizontal jump performance, following a single bout of explosive resistance exercise; however, its effects on vertical jump and muscle excitation appear limited. Future research should incorporate broader neuromuscular assessments and varied FR protocols across diverse populations to clarify underlying mechanisms and optimize recovery.

This systematic review and network meta-analysis compared the effectiveness of five flexibility-enhancing interventions-static stretching, dynamic stretching, ballistic stretching, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, and foam rolling-on ankle dorsiflexion range of motion in physically active healthy adults. A comprehensive search of multiple databases was conducted up to August 4, 2025. This review followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses 2020 guidelines and was registered in prospectively registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews. Effect sizes were synthesized using a random-effects network meta-analysis, and intervention rankings were based on the surface under the cumulative ranking curve. Forty-one randomized controlled trials (n=1,670) were included. For the passive range of motion, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (surface under the cumulative ranking curve: 76.8%) and foam rolling (67.8%) were the most effective overall. In long-term protocols (>1 mo), both proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (standardized mean difference 1.04 [0.64-1.44]) and foam rolling (standardized mean difference 1.03 [0.53-1.53]) remained superior to controls. For active range of motion, foam rolling ranked the highest (surface under the cumulative ranking curve: 87.2%) and demonstrated the largest short-term improvement, while static stretching showed the most favorable long-term maintenance (surface under the cumulative ranking curve: 72.4%). No intervention-related adverse events were reported. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation and foam rolling are optimal for long-term flexibility enhancement, whereas foam rolling is recommended for short-term, pre-exercise movement preparation. Static stretching may support sustained active range of motion across extended training periods. Intervention selection should align with specific performance goals and training timelines.

Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) compromises performance and prolongs recovery in elite athletes. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) and foam rolling (FR) are widely used but have never been directly compared in elite female volleyball players. This study compared the effects of these two supplements on biochemical and functional recovery following eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage in elite female volleyball players. As part of this exploratory pilot study, thirty elite female volleyball players (age 23.4 ± 2.8 years; height 178.6 ± 5.4cm; body mass 68.2 ± 6.1kg; training experience 8.3 ± 2.1 years in Iran's Premier League) were randomly assigned 1:1:1 to TENS (n = 10), FR (n = 10), or control (CON; n = 10) groups using concealed computer-generated allocation. DOMS was induced by five sets of 15 eccentric leg-press repetitions at 110% concentric one repetition maximum. TENS (120-150Hz, 100 µs, 10-30mA, 20min) was applied to the dominant quadriceps and hamstrings. FR (20min) targeted the quadriceps, hamstrings, iliotibial band, gastrocnemius, and gluteals muscles. Serum creatine kinase (CK), vertical jump height, and anaerobic peak power (Running based Anaerobic Sprint Test) were measured at baseline and 1, 24, and 48h postexercise. Mixed-design repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons was used. CK showed a significant Group × Time interaction (p < 0.001, η²p = 0.24). TENS lowered CK vs. CON at 1h (- 186 U/L, 95% CI - 289 to - 83; p = 0.001, d = 1.98), 24h (- 312 U/L, 95% CI - 442 to - 182; p = 0.001, d = 2.32), and 48h. FR lowered CK vs. CON only at 48h (- 166 U/L, 95% CI - 273 to - 59; p = 0.003, d = 1.32). Vertical jump recovery at 48h was superior in both interventions vs. CON (TENS + 4.8cm, 95% CI 2.1-7.5, p = 0.001, d = 1.11; FR + 3.7cm, 95% CI 1.4-6.4, p = 0.001, d = 0.85), reaching 96.3% and 95.7% of baseline vs. 85.8% in CON. No group differences were observed for anaerobic power (Group × Time p = 0.086, η²p = 0.08). Muscle soreness was lower in both active groups than in the CON group at 48h (p < 0.01, d ≥ 1.48). In this pilot cohort, TENS and FR improved recovery relative to control with different CK temporal patterns but comparable vertical jump restoration at 48h. However, given the exploratory nature of the study, these results should be interpreted as preliminary. TENS had earlier CK reductions, relevant for 24-h recovery windows; however, both produced comparable functional recovery by 48h, and neither showed consistent superiority across outcomes. FR offers a practical, cost-effective alternative to achieve equivalent functional restoration within 48h. ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT07438197, registered on 22/02/2026. Retrospectively registered.

Acute local and remote responses to foam rolling: An inter-set and contralateral thermographic analysis.

Immediate effects of high- vs. low-frequency vibration foam rolling on flexibility, dynamic balance, and vertical jump performance in young male recreational athletes: a randomized, controlled, crossover study.

The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of various warm-up strategies on volleyball-specific physical performance. Warm-ups in volleyball aim to enhance performance and reduce injury risk, but no standardized approach exists and evidence on effectiveness is inconsistent. A systematic search of PubMed and Google Scholar was conducted through 12 November 2025. Two reviewers independently screened records and assessed risk of bias. A systematic search identified 108 records; 13 met inclusion criteria. Eligible studies examined the effects of different warm-up methods on volleyball-related physical performance. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 (RoB 2) tool and visualized with the robvis package. Warm-up protocols were categorized into dynamic and static stretching, resisted warm-ups, foam rolling and vibration techniques, whole-body vibration, Raise Activate Mobilize Potentiate (RAMP), joint distraction methods, and volleyball-specific routines. Dynamic, resisted, high-intensity, volleyball-specific, and whole-body vibration warm-ups showed the most consistent improvements in jump performance, agility, and reaction time. Static stretching provided minimal benefits, with occasional gains in agility or flexibility. Foam rolling and vibration foam rolling were largely ineffective, except for one study showing improved reactive strength. The results varied due to differences in athlete level, protocol duration/intensity, sample size, and measurement methods. Warm-ups appear to meaningfully influence volleyball performance. Dynamic, resisted, and sport-specific routines appear to be the most effective. More research is needed to define optimal, standardized protocols.

Katz, NS, Rossow, LM, and Fahs, CA. The acute effect of a diaphragmatic breathing warm-up on maximal deadlift performance. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2026-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of acute diaphragmatic breathing practice on muscular strength (deadlift 1 repetition maximum) performance. Forty resistance-trained adults (32 men, 8 women; age 24.8 ± 6.8 years) completed 2 testing sessions in a randomized crossover design. Each session involved a standardized warm-up followed by a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) deadlift assessment. In the experimental condition, subjects performed a 5-minute diaphragmatic breathing protocol in the supine position before testing. Deadlift 1RM was significantly greater in the diaphragmatic breathing condition than control (163.6 ± 47.1 vs. 160.7 ± 49.6 kg; mean difference = 2.9 kg, +2.8%; p < 0.05). The effect size was small (Cohen's d = 0.34). Twenty-four subjects (60%) demonstrated improved performance (mean +8.1 kg, +6.6%), while 16 (40%) subject showed no change or a decrease in 1RM (mean -4.8 kg, -2.8%). A brief diaphragmatic breathing warm-up produced a statistically significant but small improvement in maximal deadlift performance. Given its simplicity, minimal time requirement, and the fact it requires basic equipment (e.g., a bench or box for foot support and a foam roller placed between the knees), diaphragmatic breathing may serve as a practical warm-up strategy for athletes and lifters seeking marginal gains in maximal strength performance.

This study investigated the comparative acute effects of 3 × 30 s of vibration foam rolling (VFR) or percussive massage (PM) on the hamstring muscles, specifically range of motion (ROM), maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), and muscle stiffness, using shear wave elastography (SWE), tensiomyography (TMG), and the MyotonPro. Further, the correlation between the three stiffness measures was examined. Seventeen participants (27.1 ± 3.1 years; 7 females) were randomized to VFR or PM on two occasions. Muscle stiffness of the biceps femoris (BF) was assessed at baseline and immediately post-intervention with SWE, TMG, and the MyotonPro. A sit-and-reach test was conducted and MVIC of the hamstring muscles was measured unilaterally. A significant time effect was observed for MVIC torque (p = 0.01, ƞ² = 0.319). ROM and BF muscle stiffness were unaffected by either intervention. No significant associations were found between the stiffness measurements from the three techniques. The acute application of 3 × 30 s of VFR or PM did not enhance ROM or alter BF muscle stiffness. However, both interventions reduced MVIC torque, with no significant difference between them. The lack of correlation between the SWE, TMG, and MyotonPro measurements suggests that these techniques cannot be used or interpreted interchangeably.

Effective warm-up routines are crucial for enhancing athletic performance and reducing the risk of injuries. Among various warm-up methods, foam rolling and dynamic stretching have gained popularity for their potential benefits on range of motion, explosive power, and speed. To investigate the effects of foam rolling combined with dynamic stretching on the performance of elite collegiate track and field athletes. Thirty open-category track and field athletes were selected as participants. All subjects completed three experiments using an intra-group design. Each experiment involved a different stretching scenario conducted randomly: dynamic stretching (DS), static stretching combined with dynamic stretching (SSCDS), and foam rolling combined with dynamic stretching (FRCDS). Immediately after completion of each stretching protocol, sit-and-reach performance, explosive power, and sprint performance were assessed. There was a minimum 48-hour interval between each experiment. Statistical analysis was conducted using repeated measures one-way ANOVA for comparison. If the F value showed significant differences, Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons were performed, with the significance level set at P < 0.05. The study found significant effects of different stretching interventions on sit-and-reach performance, standing long jump, vertical jump, and 30-meter sprint performance. The FRCDS condition consistently outperformed both DS and SSCDS in sit-and-reach performance (34.63 ± 11.49cm vs. 30.33 ± 11.25cm and 31.30 ± 11.21cm), standing long jump (252.43 ± 38.09cm vs. 247.50 ± 39.56cm and 248.56 ± 38.34cm), and vertical jump (41.54 ± 8.47cm vs. 39.42 ± 8.28cm and 39.85 ± 8.24cm). In the 30-meter sprint, SSCDS was superior to DS (4.36 ± 0.42s vs. 4.42 ± 0.47s), while FRCDS outperformed both (4.25 ± 0.48s). The results of this study suggest that foam rolling combined with dynamic stretching may acutely improve sit-and-reach performance, explosive power, and sprint performance in elite collegiate track and field athletes.

ABSTRACT This study examined the immediate effects of vibration (VFR) and non-vibration foam rolling (FR) on the biomechanical and viscoelastic properties of the knee flexor and extensor muscles. Thirteen young male recreational athletes (mean age: 21.46±1.45 years) completed three conditions: VFR, FR, and control conditions. Assessments were performed pre- and post-test using the MyotonPro. Regarding the knee flexors, no significant effects were observed for muscle tone, stiffness, elasticity, or relaxation time (p>0.05). Creep increased similarly in both VFR and FR groups (p=0.038). Regarding knee extensors, neither intervention affected muscle tone, elasticity, or relaxation time (p>0.05). Stiffness decreased in both groups, with VFR demonstrating greater efficacy compared to FR (p=0.002). Creep increased similarly in both the VFR and FR groups (p=0.016). Both interventions effectively enhanced the creep of knee flexor and extensor muscles and reduced knee extensor muscle stiffness, whereas VFR demonstrated a superior acute benefit in reducing extensor muscle stiffness.

Ankle dorsiflexion range of motion (ADF-ROM) deficits has been linked to impaired function, altered gait, and injury risk. This study's objective was to examine the acute effects of static self-stretching (SSS), foam rolling (FR), and instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization (IASTM) of the posterior lower-leg on ADF-ROM and functional ankle outcomes in individuals with ADF-ROM deficits. Thirteen healthy, physically active college students with active ADF-ROM ≤ 13°, assessed in a non-weight-bearing position, completed all three interventions in a randomized, within-subject repeated-measures design. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included ADF-ROM, ankle plantar flexor isometric strength (APF-IS), single-leg countermovement vertical jump (SLCVJ), anterior reach distance in the Y-Balance Test (A-YBT), and gait parameters (contact time and plantar pressure). A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests was used. Effect sizes reported as partial eta squared (ηp2) and Cohen dz. All interventions significantly improved ADF-ROM (p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.885), with IASTM showing the largest increase (50.7%, dz = 2.15), followed by FR (35.4%, dz = 2.20) and SSS (21.5%, dz = 1.82). Differences between IASTM and FR (p > 0.05, dz = 0.40) and between FR and SSS (p > 0.05, dz = 0.69) were nonsignificant, while IASTM was significantly greater than SSS (p < 0.05, dz = 0.92). Significant gains were also seen in A-YBT (p < 0.05; ηp2 = 0.302) and rearfoot plantar pressure (p < 0.01; ηp2 = 0.482), although pairwise comparisons were nonsignificant and demonstrated small-to-moderate effect sizes (dz = 0.35-0.52). No significant changes occurred in APF-IS, SLCVJ, or contact time and mid- and forefoot plantar pressures during roll-off. In conclusion, all interventions improved ADF-ROM, with IASTM and FR being comparably effective. However, only slight improvements in dynamic balance and certain gait parameters were noted, with no effect on strength or power.

ObjectiveTo explore the intervention effect of foot and ankle training combined with plantar fascia stress training on postoperative heel fracture patients.MethodsSeventy-eight patients with heel fracture who underwent surgical treatment in the orthopedic inpatient department of a hospital from February 2020 to October 2020 were selected as the study subjects, and a randomized controlled trial was conducted with postoperative follow-up. These patients were randomly grouped to obtain the control group (Group D) and the intervention group (Group G), which had the same number of cases, 39 cases. Group D only underwent routine ankle training, including dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, and internal and external rotation exercises of the ankle joint. On the basis of group D, group G added plantar fascia stress training, and used foam rollers and solid rubber balls as auxiliary tools for plantar rolling exercises, 3 groups a day, 50 times in each group. And during the intervals of rolling exercises, combine traditional Chinese medicine massage and acupoint pressing, maintain for about 30 s each time, and repeat 2–3 times.ResultsAt the end of the experiment, unlike patients in group D, patients in group G had higher Maryland foot scores, lower swelling values, lower visual analog pain scores, lower probability of complications (P < 0.05), higher vitality scores, shorter time to incision healing, shorter time to fracture healing, higher percentage of the healthy support phase to the total cycle of the healthy gait, higher treatment compliance scores, and higher overall effective rate was higher (P < 0.001). The total effective rate in group G was 97.44%.ConclusionBy means of foot and ankle training combined with plantar fascia stress training, it can effectively alleviate the pain of patients with heel fracture and exercise the function of the ankle joint.

Background: Text neck syndrome is a common musculoskeletal condition arising from prolonged forward head posture during the use of smartphones and other handheld digital devices. This posture places excessive strain on the cervical spine and associated soft tissues, leading to neck pain and postural deviations. The condition is particularly prevalent among students due to extended screen time for both academic and recreational purposes, potentially affecting physical health and daily activities. Objective: To assess and compare the effectiveness of Bowen therapy and foam rolling in alleviating pain, improving cervical range of motion, and enhancing functional outcomes in individuals with text neck syndrome. Methodology: A randomised controlled trial was conducted at Iqra National University, Peshawar. Twenty-eight participants were randomly allocated into two groups using the sealed-envelope method: Group A (Foam Rolling) and Group B (Bowen Therapy). Participants with a history of cervical trauma, dermatological conditions, tumours at the cervicothoracic junction, cervical spine surgery, neurological complications, cervical disc disease, systemic diseases, scoliosis, or kyphosis were excluded. Interventions were provided three times per week for six weeks. Outcome measures included the Numeric Pain Rating Scale for pain, the Neck Disability Index for functional impairment, the craniovertebral angle for postural assessment, and cervical range of motion for evaluating neck mobility. Normality of data was assessed through the Shapiro–Wilk test, and between- and within-group comparisons were performed using mixed-way and repeated measures ANOVA. Results: Between-group analysis revealed significant differences in the effects of foam rolling and Bowen therapy. This shows that Bowen Therapy demonstrated superior improvements in pain reduction, neck disability, and cervical range of motion (p&lt;0.05). Conclusion: Bowen therapy was found to be more effective than foam rolling in reducing pain, enhancing functional outcomes, improving cervical posture, and increasing cervical mobility in students with text neck syndrome.

In this Current Opinion, we revisit key terminological distinctions in sports sciences, emphasizing the implications of conflating related but distinct concepts, particularly range of motion (ROM) versus flexibility and flexibility training versus stretching. While often used interchangeably, these terms represent nuanced constructs with distinct physiological and practical implications. ROM encompasses both modifiable (e.g., soft tissue extensibility, neural control) and non-modifiable factors (e.g., bone structure), whereas flexibility is only one of several trainable components of ROM, largely referring to the extensibility of periarticular soft tissues. Misunderstanding these distinctions risks erroneous assessments and inappropriate exercise prescriptions. We also challenge the common practice of equating flexibility training with stretching. While stretching is effective to enhance flexibility, other methods, such as strength training at long muscle lengths and foam rolling, produce comparable chronic ROM gains. Furthermore, stretching has a diverse array of effects that extend beyond flexibility, including strength development and neural modulation. Mischaracterizing flexibility training as synonymous with stretching perpetuates myths and constrains innovation in training practices. By differentiating these terms, we advocate for clearer language in research and practice to avoid miscommunication and ensure effective training interventions. In summary, we propose that flexibility is only one component of ROM, and that flexibility training and stretching should not be equated. We hope this Current Opinion paper generates a healthy discussion within the sports science and medicine communities.

A single session of complex contrast training (CCT) can induce lower-limb fatigue, making the optimization of post-CCT recovery strategies essential. Foam rolling (FR) is widely used and is believed to enhance acute recovery. Therefore, this study examined the acute effects of FR compared with passive recovery (PR) following a single bout of CCT on dynamic balance (YBT), static balance (SLST), horizontal jump performance (SLHD), vertical jump performance (CMJ), and muscle excitation measured via surface electromyography (sEMG). Twenty-one active males completed the study using a crossover design, being randomly allocated to FR and PR conditions. Assessments were performed at three time points: pre-test, immediately post-CCT (mid-test), and after the recovery intervention (post-test). Participants performed the CCT protocol prior to recovery (5 sets × 6 repetitions at 80% and 30% of 1RM). Test measures included YBT, SLST, SLHD, CMJ, and sEMG recordings from selected lower-limb muscles. FR resulted in significant acute improvements in YBT, SLST, and SLHD compared with PR (p < 0.05), whereas no meaningful differences were detected in CMJ performance (p > 0.05). Although time effects were observed in sEMG excitation for some muscles (p < 0.05), no intervention × time interactions were detected (p > 0.05). FR is an effective acute recovery strategy for enhancing dynamic and static balance as well as horizontal jump performance following CCT. However, its influence on vertical jump performance and muscle excitation appears limited. Future research should incorporate broader neuromuscular assessments, varied FR protocols, and diverse populations to better clarify underlying mechanisms and optimize recovery outcomes.

Practical strategies that facilitate rapid restoration of cardiovascular and neuromuscular function are needed to support the short recovery window between matches in high-level wrestling tournaments. This study compared the effects of post-match foam rolling (FR), static stretching (SS), and passive rest (PR) on cardiac-autonomic, hemodynamic, and neuromuscular performance markers in national-level wrestlers. Sixteen male wrestlers (weight class range: 57–92 kg, ≥ 5 years of wrestling experience) participated in this randomized crossover study. Recovery interventions were performed on separate days immediately following a maximal-intensity match simulation. Heart rate variability (HRV), brachial blood pressure (BP), and countermovement jump (CMJ) parameters were measured pre-match, post-match, immediately post-recovery, and 10 min post-recovery. Across all recovery methods, HRV parameters showed progressive but incomplete recovery following post-match reductions (p < 0.05), while transient post-match BP increases were followed by a hypotensive response (p < 0.05). CMJ parameters were reduced at all post-match time points, with the greatest impairment observed immediately post-recovery (p < 0.05). Although no condition × time interactions were observed (p > 0.05), Hedges’ g effect sizes showed that at 10 min post-recovery, HRV parameters were higher for FR (g = 0.62–0.95), and to a lesser extent for SS (g = 0.54–0.69) versus PR. Mean arterial pressure was lower for FR versus PR (g = -0.69) at the same time point. While effect sizes suggest modest HRV recovery benefits favoring FR with neutral CMJ effects, the lack of statistical significance provides no conclusive evidence to recommend these modalities over PR for post-match recovery. Clinical trial number Trial registration: NCT07305506 (Registered date: 12 December 2025). This study was retrospectively registered on https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT07305506.

This study examined the effects of vibrating foam rollers (VR) on delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), inflammatory response, and athletic performance. Eighteen experienced adult runners (average running experience: 6 years) participated in a crossover study with three recovery interventions: vibrating roller (VR), non-vibrating roller (NVR), and static stretching (SS). DOMS was induced through downhill treadmill running. Each intervention targeted four muscle groups bilaterally (gluteal, anterior/posterior thigh, anterior/posterior calf) for 30 seconds per group using a vibration frequency of 28 Hz for the VR condition. Blood samples were taken at baseline (T0), 24 hours (T24), and 48 hours (T48) post-exercise to assess creatine kinase (CK), C-reactive protein (CRP), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Lower limb flexibility, muscle stiffness, vertical jump performance, and Y-balance test (YBT) were also measured. Eleven participants experienced DOMS and completed studies. No significant interaction effects were observed for any outcome variable. Hamstrings flexibility, YBT scores, and CK levels showed significant time effects, indicating natural recovery over 48 hours. Group differences in CK and YBT remained unchanged over time, indicating no intervention was more effective. In addition, muscle stiffness, jump performance, CRP, and IL-6 levels did not differ between interventions. VR, NVR, and SS produced similar short-term recovery outcomes, with no intervention showing clear superiority. Overall, the changes observed within 48 hours reflected general physiological recovery rather than distinct benefits from any specific intervention.

One of the common injuries in soccer is hamstring strain, so improving hamstring flexibility can partially prevent the occurrence of these injuries. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of six weeks of static stretching (SS), proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF), muscle energy technique (MET), gross tonic technique (GT), and foam rolling (FR) on hamstring flexibility in adolescent male soccer players. Ninety male soccer players (mean aged = 13.01 ± 1.11 years) were randomly assigned to five intervention groups and a control group (n = 15 each), underwent a 6-week intervention, with flexibility assessed pre- and post-intervention using a universal goniometer and the active knee extension test. One-way ANCOVA, controlling for pretest values, showed a significant difference between groups (F(5, 83) = 22.79, p < 0.001, η² = 0.57). All intervention groups showed significant improvement compared to control (p < 0.001). The GT group was superior to MET (p = 0.01; Cohen’s d = − 1.23), PNF (p = 0.004; Cohen’s d = − 1.40), and FR (p = 0.02; Cohen’s d = − 1.19), but no difference was observed with SS (p > 0.05; Cohen’s d = − 0.75). All methods improved hamstring flexibility, but GT was the most effective (except when compared with SS). These findings suggest the potential use of GT in training programs to reduce injury and improve performance in adolescent soccer players. However, since the study included only adolescent male players and no long-term follow-up was performed, generalizability is limited. Registry: Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials; registration number: IRCT20240306061185N2; date of registration: 08/03/2024.

Background The gluteus maximus (GM) and biceps femoris (BF) play important roles in maintaining the stability and mobility of the hip joint during various bridge exercises. The bases of support (BOS) during bridge exercises might have different effects on the muscle activities of the lower extremities. Objective This study aimed to examine the activation of the GM, BF, and multifidus (MF) muscles and the GM/BF and MF/BF ratios during bridge exercises with three different BOS in healthy individuals. Methods Twenty healthy individuals participated using surface electromyography of the GM, BF, and MF muscles. The participants were asked to perform bridge exercises in a randomized order: conventional bridge exercise (BE), bridge exercise on a Togu (BET), and bridge exercise on a foam roller (BEF). Results The muscle activation of the GM was significantly different among the three conditions (BE, BET, BEF) (adjusted p-value [Padj] &lt; 0.01). The GM muscle showed higher activity with BEF compared to BE and BET (Padj &lt; 0.01). The BF showed a significant decrease in BET and BEF compared to BE. The ratios of GM/BF and MF/BF showed a significant increase in BEF compared to BE (Padj &lt; 0.01). Conclusion The BEF is recommended to selectively increase the GM activity and improve the GM/BF and MF/BF ratios.