Florida Panhandle Research Articles

Assessing the Ability to Quantify Bathymetric Change over Time Using Solely Satellite-Based Measurements

Coastal regions are undergoing rapid change, due to natural and anthropogenic forcings. A current constraint in understanding and modeling these changes is the lack of multi-temporal bathymetric data, or recursive observations. Often, it is difficult to obtain the repeat observations needed to quantify bathymetric change over time or events. However, the recent availability of ICESat-2 bathymetric lidar creates the option to map coastal bathymetry from solely space-based measurements via satellite-derived bathymetry with multispectral imagery (IS-2/SDB). This compositional space-based bathymetric mapping technique can assess temporal change along the coasts without other remote sensing or in situ data. However, questions exist as to the accuracy of the technique relative to both quantitative uncertainties and the ability to resolve the spatial patterns of erosion and deposition in the nearshore environment, indicative of geomorphologic change. This paper addresses the concept using data from the Florida panhandle (Northern Gulf of Mexico) collected by Sentinel-2 and ICESat-2 at two epochs to assess the feasibility of using IS-2/SDB for bathymetric change detection at scientifically relevant scales, spatial resolutions and accuracies. The comparison of the satellite-only result is compared to airborne data collected at similar epochs to reveal both quantitatively and qualitatively the utility of this technique.

The University of West Florida Campus Ecosystem Study: age-diameter and growth relationships of longleaf pine using hurricane-induced windthrows

The campus of the University of West Florida (UWF) was constructed among second-growth longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) stands that survived extensive logging in the Florida Panhandle. Previous studies on longleaf pine on the main UWF campus have estimated, based on a model from old-growth longleaf in southern Georgia, that oldest stems were just under 200 yr old and that > 80% of stems on the main UWF are between 50 and 125 years old. More accurate age data can be obtained from disks collected locally from recently fallen trees. On 16 September 2020, Hurricane Sally impacted UWF as a Category 2 storm, with winds reaching 49 m/sec. Our study took advantage of longleaf pine blowdowns by Sally to obtain cross-sections for age determinations. Two natural areas of the UWF campus were chosen for sampling: the Edward Ball Nature Trail and the Baars-Firestone Wildlife Sanctuary. For each sampled section, diameter at breast height (DBH) and number and width of annual rings were recorded. Based on a total of 50 sampled trees, linear regression revealed a statistically significant (P < 0.00001; R2 = 0.82) relationship between DBH and age. Applying this to DBH measurements of 2,165 stems on the main campus indicates that the oldest longleaf pines are ~ 130 years old (mean age = 63.9 ± 0.4 yr), consistent with cessation of historically widespread harvesting in the region. Mean age for the Trails site (55.7 ± 1.6 yr) was significantly lower than that of the Sanctuary (66.7 ± 2.0 yr), suggesting that they represent sites of contrasting land-use history. Annual growth rates of older pines were mostly negatively correlated with temperature. Directions of stem windthrows did not vary between natural areas and were consistent with characteristics of the eyewall of Hurricane Sally with strongest wind gusts moving from a southeast to northwest direction. This study confirms that college/university campuses can be used as a units of ecological study in a way that takes advantage of stochastic events such as tropical cyclones.

The River in Pieces

The River in Pieces Shana Campbell Jones (bio) Shana Campbell Jones, poem, river, estuarine, watershed The river in pieces—pool, riffle, run—holds thousands inside itself, still undone,motion captured. Strange critters swirl within.The churn-water breaks, a misted engine. A bitten hot wish, remade, swallowed deep,flows into shadowed shape coherent, weepsinto a waterfall, crashes sideways,surfaces spinning, darts into bright day. Lines mend: boundaries cut to maps and saws,and gravity, a dark fish, dives and drawsswift-cold streams into rolling channeled forceinevitable. Widening, the course opens warmer, swells in yellow ambling.Lakes interrupt—boats buzz—but the bendingresumes eventually; hairy swamps emerge,remoteness expands to eternal surge where brackish waters wander, sweep full wide,fan estuarine, pull life along the tidemore gently. Sharpness turns to silencemeandering, builds, and then relents into mouth: sound fixed fast to a squall.Seagulls soar; the wet wind drives, enthrallsthe highest sky—at last the river sails,presses vastness: a watershed exhales. [End Page 143] Shana Campbell Jones SHANA CAMPBELL JONES is an environmental lawyer at the University of Georgia, where she focuses on coastal issues, sea-level rise adaptation, and environmental policy. She grew up in the Florida Panhandle. She lives in Athens, Georgia, with her son. Copyright © 2022 University of North Carolina Wilmington

GANSAT: A GAN and SATellite Constellation Fingerprint-Based Framework for GPS Spoof-Detection and Location Estimation in GPS Deprived Environment

This paper presents a robust system for mitigating adversarial and natural GPS disruptions by presenting: (1) a software-based defense mechanism against spoofing attacks using generative adversarial networks (GANs), The system detects unauthorized or spoofed GPS signals from a hardware based spoofer, and (2) deep neural network models to infer positioning information in GPS-degraded /denied environments using the novel idea of GPS satellite constellation fingerprint. As the GAN and Satellite constellation fingerprinting are used together in a unified framework, we call it the “GANSAT positioning system.” Intuitively, the GANSAT neural networks implicitly learn a representation of the aggregation of the hardware fingerprints of the satellite’s in the GPS constellation at a given location and time. To demonstrate the approach, raw GPS signals were collected from the satellite transmitters using a software defined radio (SDR) at five different locations in the Florida panhandle area of the United States. Additionally, a GPS spoofer is implemented using a SDR and an open source software and used in an uncontrolled laboratory environment for spoofing the GPS signals at the aforementioned locations. In our experiments, the GANSAT framework yields ~99.5% accuracy for the task of identifying and filtering the spoofed GPS signals from real ones. It also achieves ~100% accuracy for the task of location estimation.

Spatial dynamics of the quantity and diversity of natural and artificial hard bottom habitats in the eastern Gulf of Mexico

The eastern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf (approximately 144,000 km2), while dominated by unconsolidated sediments, contains diverse hard bottom habitats critical to economically important reef fishes. Although high-resolution mapping exists for several well-known hard bottom features (e.g. Florida Middle Grounds, The Sticky Grounds), the majority of the shelf remains unmapped. Through mapping efforts conducted in support of fisheries independent resource surveys, hard bottom habitats were identified and classified from 4208 randomly distributed, small-scale (2 km2) side-scan sonar surveys conducted between 2010 and 2018. Thirty-three natural and artificial hard bottom habitat types were identified, with Flat Hard Bottom comprising both the greatest area coverage (131.7 km2) and number of individual features classified (n = 42,829). Classification and regression tree analyses were conducted to identify spatial patterns of hard bottom habitat composition based on both area coverage and number of individual hard bottom features. These maps identified distinct spatial variability in the availability of several habitat types, such as increased number of Pothole habitats in deep shelf waters off the Florida Peninsula and increased coverage by artificial reef habitats within the Florida Panhandle. Extrapolating results from this representative, broad scale approach to habitat mapping indicated that approximately 3854 km2 (2.6%) of the shelf is comprised of natural hard bottom habitat. The value of comprehensive habitat data is highlighted within recent efforts toward generating absolute abundances of reef fish species as well as continuing efforts toward ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management.

Responses of Imperiled Snowy Plovers (Charadrius nivosus) to Anthropogenic and Natural Disturbance in the Florida Panhandle

The habitat of beach-nesting birds often overlaps with areas heavily used for human recreation. Human activity has been linked to negative behavioral and reproductive consequences for shorebirds; therefore, it is important for managers to understand how to best mitigate disturbance. In Florida, there is concern that human disturbance negatively affects the state-threatened population of Snowy Plovers (Charadrius nivosus). We measured response probabilities and flight initiation distances (FIDs) of Snowy Plovers at sites experiencing a range of human use. Snowy Plovers responded at longer distances to pedestrians and dogs than to competitor and predator species, except for incubating birds which responded at longer distances to predators. At all distances below 50 m, plovers had a response probability of > 0.2 for pedestrians. Dogs induced such strong reactions at close distances that plovers always displaced before they came within 20 m. Brood-rearing plovers were more sensitive to anthropogenic disturbance than plovers engaged in other behaviors. Plovers at sites with high disturbance generally had lower FIDs than birds at sites with less disturbance. Our findings illustrate the importance of accounting for differences in disturbance regimes among sites when setting buffer distances, and for protecting brood-rearing areas in addition to nesting habitat. Due to the severity of responses prompted by dogs, managers should strongly consider dog prohibitions at sites with breeding Snowy Plovers, as reasonable buffers may not be adequate.

A second decade of overwintering hummingbirds in Florida and Alabama

For a second decade, from November 2008 to March 2018, we examined the species diversity, return rate, longevity, and migration routes of hummingbirds overwintering in southern Alabama and the panhandle, northern peninsula, and central peninsula of Florida. We captured and banded 11 species of hummingbirds (n= 1,870 individuals), including 931 Rufous Hummingbirds (Selasphorus rufus; 49%), 583 Ruby-throated Hummingbirds (Archilochus colubris; 31%), 219 Black-chinned Hummingbirds (A. alexandri; 12%), 49 Buff-bellied Hummingbirds (Amazilia yucatanensis), 49 Calliope Hummingbirds (S. calliope), 19 Allen's Hummingbirds (S. sasin), 11 Broad-tailed Hummingbirds (S. platycercus), 6 Broad-billed Hummingbirds (Cynanthus latriostris), 1 Anna's Hummingbird (Calypte anna), 1 Costa's Hummingbird (Calypte costae), and 1 White-eared Hummingbird (Hylocharis leucotis). Site fidelity was high, with 299 hummingbirds of 5 species returning at least once. Two Rufous Hummingbirds migrated to our study area in the autumn from the West (Oklahoma and Texas). One Ruby-throated Hummingbird banded in Lakeland, Florida, was recovered in Utopia, New Brunswick, Canada, suggesting the overwintering Ruby-throated Hummingbirds in our study area are migratory and not sedentary.

Resistance, resilience, and recovery of salt marshes in the Florida Panhandle following Hurricane Michael

Characterizing the fragility, resistance, and resilience of marshes is critical for understanding their role in reducing storm damages and for helping to manage the recovery of these natural defenses. This study uses high-resolution aerial imagery to quantify the impacts of Hurricane Michael, a category 5 hurricane, on coastal salt marshes in the Florida Panhandle, USA. Marsh damage was classified into several categories, including deposition of sediment or wrack, fallen trees, vegetation loss, and conversion to open water. The marshes were highly resistant to storm damages even under extreme conditions; only 2% of the 173,259 km2 of marshes in the study area were damaged—a failure rate much lower than that of artificial defenses. Marshes may be more resistant than resilient to storm impacts; damaged marshes were slow to recover, and only 16% of damaged marshes had recovered 6 months after landfall. Marsh management mattered for resistance and resilience; marshes on publicly-managed lands were less likely to be damaged and more likely to recover quickly from storm impacts than marshes on private land, emphasizing the need to incentivize marsh management on private lands. These results directly inform policy and practice for hazard mitigation, disaster recovery, adaptation, and conservation, particularly given the potential for more intense hurricane landfalls as the climate changes.

Surgical Resection of Colorectal Liver Metastases: Attitudes and Practice Patterns in the Deep South

BackgroundMetastatic disease is the leading cause of mortality in colorectal cancer. Resection of colorectal liver metastases, when possible, is associated with improved long-term survival and the possibility of cure. However, nationwide studies suggest that liver resection is under-utilized in the treatment of colorectal liver metastases. This study was undertaken to understand attitudes and practice patterns among medical oncologists in the Deep South. MethodsA survey of medical oncologists in the states of Alabama, Mississippi, and the Florida panhandle was performed. Respondents were queried regarding perceptions of resectability and attitudes towards surgical referral. ResultsWe received 63 responses (32% response rate). Fifty percent of respondents reported no liver surgeons in their practice area. Commonly perceived contraindications to liver resection included extrahepatic metastatic disease (72%), presence of > 4 metastases (72%), bilobar metastases (61%), and metastases > 5 cm (46%). Bilobar metastatic disease was perceived as a contraindication more frequently by non-academic medical oncologists (70% vs. 33%, p = 0.03). ConclusionsWide variations exist in perceptions of resectability and referral patterns for colorectal liver metastases among surveyed medical oncologists. There is a need for wider dissemination of resectability criteria and more liver surgeon involvement in the management of patients with colorectal liver metastases.

Skin lesion and mortality rate estimates for common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) in the Florida Panhandle following a historic flood.

Increasing evidence links prolonged freshwater exposure to adverse health conditions, immune deficiencies, and mortality in delphinids. Pensacola, Florida, experienced a record-breaking flood event in April 2014, after which, skin lesions evident of freshwater exposure were observed on common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Here we assess the potential consequences of the flood on bottlenose dolphin health and mortality. Data from an ongoing study were used to evaluate the relationship between skin lesions (progression, prevalence, and extent) and the flood with respect to changing environmental conditions (salinity). Annual stranding records (2012–2016) from Alabama to the eastern Florida Panhandle were used as an indicator of dolphin health to test the hypothesis that the flood event resulted in increased annual mortality rates. Although salinities remained low for several months, results suggest that there was not the widespread skin lesion outbreak anticipated. Of the 333 unique individuals detected only 20% were seen with skin lesions. There was a significant increase in the proportion of dolphins seen post-flood with lesion extent above background levels (≥ 5%; p = 0.001), however, there were only 11 cases with lesion extent greater than 20%. Skin lesion prevalence increased overall following the flood (p < 0.001), but pairwise comparisons revealed a delayed response with significant increases not detected until the following fall (p = 0.01), several months after salinities returned to expected levels. Regression modeling revealed no significant effects of year, region, or year x region on mortality rates, except in Alabama, where increased mortality rates were likely due to residual impacts from the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill. This study takes advantage of a natural experiment, highlighting how little is understood about the conditions in which prolonged freshwater exposure leads to negative impacts on dolphin health.

Composite Analysis of Cool-Season Florida Tornado Outbreaks

This study presents a multiscale environmental analysis of 33 Florida tornado (1979–2016) and 29 null events (2003–2019). A tornado event was defined as ≥ 4 tornadoes within a 24-h period during December–May, which was chosen to eliminate events associated with tropical cyclones. Null events were defined as periods when the NOAA Storm Prediction Center had tornado outlook probabilities ≥ 5% over any part of Florida, but &lt; 4 tornadoes occurred in 24 h. Central Florida experienced the largest number of tornado events, while most null events occurred in the Florida Panhandle. Tornado events occurred slightly more frequently during El Niño and negative Arctic Oscillation, in contrast to cool-season events elsewhere in the United States. Using the North American Regional Reanalysis, a composite synoptic analysis showed that compared to null events, tornado events were associated with a coupled divergent jet streak region, a more amplified anomalous mid-tropospheric trough, a surface cyclone located farther south (Gulf of Mexico vs. Tennessee Valley), and larger equivalent potential temperature anomalies. While both event sets featured high-shear, low-CAPE environments that are typical of southeast United States tornado events, tornado events exhibited larger storm-relative helicity and 0–6-km vertical wind shear. Overall, results suggest that synoptic pattern recognition techniques and mesoscale parameter spaces can help forecasters in identifying potential Florida tornado events.

Seasonal Flight Patterns of Chrysodeixis includens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the Florida Panhandle and Inventory of Plusiine Species Cross-Attracted to Synthetic Pheromone.

Chysodeixis includens (Walker) is a polyphagous economic pest in agricultural landscapes. To detect the occurrence of this pest in the field, trapping using sex pheromone lures is often implemented. However, other plusiine species are cross-attracted to these lures and may be misidentified as C. includens due to their morphological similarities. The objectives of this study were to provide region-specific information on the abundance of C. includens throughout the year as well as document the occurrence of related plusiines cross-attracted to C. includens sex pheromone traps in the Florida Panhandle. Twelve commercial fields of peanut and twelve commercial fields of cotton located across Escambia, Santa Rosa, and Jackson counties were monitored with Trécé delta traps baited with C. includens sex pheromone lures (Alpha Scents, Inc.; West Linn, OR) from June 2017 to June 2019. There was no difference in C. includens flight across dryland or irrigated fields. Identifications revealed that in addition to C. includens, the following species of the subfamily Plusiinae were crossed-attracted: Argyrogramma verruca (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Trichoplusia ni (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Ctenoplusia oxygramma (Geyer) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and Rachiplusia ou (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The occurrence of each species in the region and their flight phenology are documented. Chysodeixis includens abundance was greatest in September and decreased through December. Due to the high abundance of C. oxygramma and similar flight phenology to C. includens, this is the likeliest species to skew estimations and influence management decisions of C. includens, especially early in the crop season, when C. includens abundance is low.

Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genome of Thyonella gemmata (Echinodermata: Cucumariidae)

Thyonella gemmata , also known as the Green sea cucumber, is a biomedically and ecologically important species. In this study, the complete mitogenome of T. gemmata (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) collected from the Florida Panhandle, USA is reported. The mitochondrial genome of T. gemmata consisted of 15,696 base pairs, and was composed of 36.10% A, 28.27% T, 23.18% C, and 12.45% G. There were 13 protein coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNA genes within the mitogenome of T. gemmata. Mapping out the complete mitochondrial genome of T. gemmata, will help aid in future evolutionary studies and can be applied to future phylogenetic research of holothurians and related species.

Population Size and Structure of the Ornate Diamondback Terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin macrospilota) on Small Gulf Coast Islands in Florida

Management decisions for species are often based on estimates of abundance, which can be difficult to obtain for species that are a challenge to survey, as are some reptiles. Information on abundance and population status are lacking for the diamondback terrapin (Malaclemys terrapin), a coastal species that inhabits brackish waters and plays an important trophic role in the saltmarsh ecosystem. Population declines are suspected throughout the species' range, and its population status is unknown in Florida. Of the 5 subspecies that inhabit Florida's coastline, the most understudied subspecies may be the ornate diamondback terrapin (M. t. macrospilota). We conducted a capture–mark–recapture study of M. t. macrospilota during the summer of 2013 on 3 adjacent coastal islands in the eastern panhandle of Florida that provided information on population size and demography. We captured 334 individuals; modeling estimated a population size of 1282 (867–1905 95% CI) and a density of 150 terrapins/ha. Population size decreased throughout the study, suggesting that this population is an aggregation that seasonally emigrates from the islands. This emigration trend was more evident for females. Males outnumbered females 4:1, and females were larger than males. Our study is the first to report on M. t. macrospilota populations in the Florida panhandle. We recommend collaborative, long-term population monitoring at our sites to estimate population trends that will be crucial for managing this subspecies.

Assessing common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) population structure in Mississippi Sound and coastal waters of the north central Gulf of Mexico

Abstract Population structure of highly mobile marine organisms can be complex and difficult to study, but it is important to understand how populations partition themselves within their environment for accurate assessment of both natural and anthropogenic impacts and successful management. The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill negatively impacted common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) within Mississippi Sound and the surrounding north central Gulf of Mexico (GOMx); however, little was known about their underlying population structure in these waters. Thus, it was unclear how many demographically independent populations were affected by the spill. Common bottlenose dolphin samples were collected throughout inshore waters of Mississippi Sound and coastal waters of the north‐central GOMx. Mitochondrial DNA control region sequence data and 19 nuclear microsatellite loci were analysed to determine how many populations are present and characterize their range throughout these waters. Bayesian clustering and migration analyses identified two genetically distinct and demographically independent populations: one predominantly inhabiting Mississippi Sound and adjacent coastal waters, and a second population extending generally from offshore of Mobile Bay, Alabama, east along the Florida Panhandle. Neither of these populations align with the currently delineated management stocks previously used to estimate impacts from the oil spill on common bottlenose dolphins in this portion of the GOMx. These results suggest that revisions may be necessary so that management stocks accurately represent the demographically independent populations present in these waters. Furthermore, better comprehension of underlying population structure will enhance impact assessments on common bottlenose dolphins and provide more appropriate baseline data to support future restoration and conservation objectives.

Exposure of Loggerhead Sea Turtle Nests to Waves in the Florida Panhandle

Wave wash-over poses a significant threat to sea turtle nests, with sustained exposure to waves potentially resulting in embryonic mortality and altered hatchling locomotor function, size, and sex ratios. Identifying where and under what conditions wave exposure becomes a problem, and deciding what action(s) to take (if any), is a common issue for sea turtle managers. To determine the exposure of sea turtle nests to waves and identify potential impacts to hatchling productivity, we integrated a geographic information system with remote sensing and wave runup modeling across 40 nesting beaches used by the Northern Gulf of Mexico Loggerhead Recovery Unit. Our models indicate that, on average, approximately 50% of the available beach area and 34% of nesting locations per nesting beach face a significant risk of wave exposure, particularly during tropical storms. Field data from beaches in the Florida Panhandle show that 42.3% of all nest locations reported wave exposure, which resulted in a 45% and 46% decline in hatching and emergence success, respectively, relative to their undisturbed counterparts. Historical nesting frequency at each beach and modeled exposure to waves were considered to identify priority locations with high nesting density which either experience low risk of wave exposure, as these are good candidates for protection as refugia for sustained hatchling production, or which have high wave exposure where efforts to reduce impacts are most warranted. Nine beaches in the eastern Florida Panhandle were identified as priority sites for future efforts such as habitat protection or research and development of management strategies. This modeling exercise offers a flexible approach for a threat assessment integration into research and management questions relevant to sea turtle conservation, as well as for other beach species and human uses of the coastal environment.

“Eat, Pray, Party!”

Through centering the Florida Panhandle and using MTV’s Floribama Shore as an entry point, this essay articulates a Floridian-Southern identity. We organize this project around three themes that are heavily present in both Floribama Shore and our personal experiences as Floridian-Southerners: intra-regional tensions around religion, gender performances, and reproductive politics. Through layering our experiences among vignettes from Floribama Shore, we make visible the relationship between the consumption of popular media, the representations of Floridian-Southerners in popular media, the social and cultural regulation of hegemonic Southern deportment, and our own Floridian-Southern identity.

Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER) Following Hurricane Michael, Bay and Gulf Counties, Florida, 2019.

On October 10, 2018, Hurricane Michael made landfall near Mexico Beach, Florida, as one of the strongest storms on record to hit the US mainland. Hurricane Michael brought strong winds, heavy rain, and life-threatening storm surge, causing extensive damage across the Florida Panhandle. To assess community preparedness and effects experienced by Panhandle residents, including structural and economic losses, injury and illness, health care access, and suicide risk and ideation in the counties most severely impacted by Hurricane Michael. The Florida Department of Health conducted a Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Response (CASPER) in October and November 2019, a year after Hurricane Michael made landfall. CASPER is a 2-stage cluster sampling method designed to provide household-level information about a community's needs in a timely, inexpensive, and representative manner. A total of 30 clusters were randomly selected from Bay and Gulf Counties, Florida. In total, 178 face-to-face interviews were completed with adult residents 18 years or older. Hurricane-related impacts, including structural and economic losses, injury and illness, health care access; and mental health. Almost half of respondents did not evacuate despite mandatory evacuation orders. Most houses (78.1%) received some damage, with more than half still not repaired 1 year later. Access to emergency supply kits, water, nonperishable foods, medications, and health care was common, though many reported needing supplies not included in their kit. Less than half reported having working household carbon monoxide detectors. Injuries and illnesses associated with the hurricane were uncommon; however, anxiety, depression, and insomnia were reported as occurring or worsening by more than one-third of respondents posthurricane. Increased education and communication regarding hurricane preparedness and recovery, which include clearer messaging on evacuation, improving emergency supply kits, importance of carbon monoxide detectors, and proper generator use, could enhance the safety of the community.

Can Venus flytraps be triggered to close by raindrops?

Dionaea muscipula traps, in a natural setting, are sometimes triggered to close without capturing prey. In the Florida panhandle, in dry weather, time-lapse photographs show the frequency of closure without capture to be 2.1 closures/% of active-traps/day. A sudden burst of intense rain can increase this by two to three orders of magnitude for a brief time. Frequencies of 15.5 closures/% of active-traps/hour and 148 closures/% of active-traps/hour have been measured. The large increase in closures occurs when rain first starts, because the most exposed and most sensitive traps are triggered early, leaving traps in a more sheltered position and those with a less sensitive response open. Only 6 to 12% of the traps in the field of view were closed by intense rain. Even rain so heavy that the traps were submerged in water left most of the traps open. Gentle rain can close traps, but this is not a common event. The necessity of two or more stimuli to close a trap accounts for traps general lack of responsiveness to raindrops in light rainfall. Traps observed to be closed by raindrops began reopening in an average of 4.5 hours and full reopening averaged 15.8 hours. Since partially open traps are capable of capturing prey, the average trap closed by rain is effective at trapping in about 12 hours. Rainfall is only a minor factor interfering with traps’ ability to catch prey.

The Role of the Gulf of Mexico Ocean Conditions in the Intensification of Hurricane Michael (2018)

AbstractHurricane Michael formed on October 7, 2018, in the Northwestern Caribbean Sea, and quickly traveled northward through the Gulf of Mexico, making landfall on the Florida panhandle as a devastating Category 5 hurricane only 3 days later. Before landfall, Michael underwent rapid intensification, despite unfavorable atmospheric conditions. Using observations, we characterized the key ocean features encountered by Michael along its track, which are known for favoring hurricane intensification: high sea surface temperatures, upper ocean heat content and low salinity barrier layer conditions. Ocean observations were consistent with suppressed hurricane‐induced upper ocean cooling, which could only be observed by underwater gliders, and showed that Hurricane Michael constantly experienced sea surface temperatures above 28°C. We carried out ocean Observing System Experiments, which demonstrate that the combined assimilation of in situ and satellite ocean observations into a numerical ocean model led to the most realistic representation of the ocean conditions. They also suggest that, when using the Cooper‐Haines (1996) method to assimilate altimetry observations, assimilating temperature observations is necessary to constrain the model upper ocean vertical structure. We also performed coupled hurricane‐ocean simulations to assess the impact of ocean initial conditions on forecasting Michael. These simulations demonstrate that the ocean conditions, in particular the high sea surface temperatures north of 24°N, played a crucial role in the intensification of Michael. Coupled simulations initialized with the most realistic ocean conditions, constrained by field and satellite observations, show a ∼56% error reduction in wind intensity prior to landfall compared to simulations initialized without data assimilation.