Flexible Problem Solving Research Articles

Sustainable Water Management Solutions for Urban Areas

The management of water resources is a serious concern in urban areas because of the effects of climate change, aging infrastructure, and rapid population increase. This essay examines the vital significance of sustainable water management in urban settings, emphasizing cutting-edge frameworks for policy and technology that can improve water resilience and efficiency. Successful strategies, such as demand management and diversification of the water supply, are demonstrated by case studies like Windhoek, Namibia. In order to solve the intricate and interrelated problems of urban water scarcity, infrastructure constraints, and environmental repercussions, the essay emphasizes integrated water resources management (IWRM) as a crucial technique that incorporates multidisciplinary viewpoints. In order to guarantee a sustainable urban water future, the importance of inclusive policies and governance is also covered, highlighting the necessity of cooperative and flexible problemsolving techniques.

Taking a Team Approach: Keep up with the EHR with a Training and Optimization Program.

This study aimed to describe the current landscape of electronic health record (EHR) training and optimization programs (ETOPs) and their impact on healthcare workers' (HCWs) experience with the EHR. A 72-question electronic survey was developed and distributed to healthcare organization (HCO) leaders in clinical informatics through various channels such as national informatics conferences, social media, and email distribution lists of vendors and informatics associations. The survey collected data on the characteristics, resourcing, approach, and outcomes of ETOPs. Descriptive statistics were applied to analyze the data. There were 193 responses from 147 distinct HCOs. Of these, 69% offer ongoing EHR training, and 52% offer some version of an ETOP. Offered ETOPs vary in their timing, modality, audience, team composition, duration, and EHR build strategy. The most commonly measured outcomes were EHR satisfaction, efficiency, and provider burnout, and most ETOPs reported improvement in these areas. The findings suggest that ETOPs are inconsistently implemented across HCOs, and while there are some commonalities, there is a wide variety of design and methods of evaluation for the programs. Though the problems to solve for (EHR efficiency, proficiency, and satisfaction) are the same, the organizational structure and culture of HCOs varies widely, which may partially explain the variability seen in reported ETOPs. When considering the measured outcomes, ETOPs may have direct and indirect effects on HCW burnout by improving EHR efficiency and satisfaction, as well as driving organizational culture towards teamwork and flexible problem solving. For this reason, ETOPs may also serve as a model for addressing other challenges in healthcare delivery. ETOPs are a promising intervention to enhance HCW experience with the EHR and reduce burnout. More research is needed to identify the optimal features, methods, and outcomes of ETOPs, and to disseminate them across HCOs.

Wild raccoons demonstrate flexibility and individuality in innovative problem-solving.

Cognitive skills, such as innovative problem-solving, are hypothesized to aid animals in urban environments. However, the significance of innovation in wild populations, and its expression across individuals and socio-ecological conditions, is poorly understood. To identify how and when innovation arises in urban-dwelling species, we used advanced technologies and new testing and analytical methods to evaluate innovative problem-solving abilities of wild raccoons (Procyon lotor). We deployed multi-compartment puzzle boxes with either one or multiple solution types and identified raccoons using radio frequency identification. Raccoons solved these novel extractive foraging tasks, and their success was influenced by age and exploratory diversity. Successful raccoons always discovered multiple different solution types, highlighting flexible problem-solving. Using a unique, comparative sequence analysis approach, we found that variation in raccoon solving techniques was greater between individuals than within individuals, and this self-similarity intensified during times of competition. Finally, the inclusion of an easier solution in the multi-solution trials enabled previously unsuccessful raccoons to bootstrap their learning and successfully open multiple difficult solutions. Our study suggests that innovative problem-solving is probably influenced by many factors and has provided novel field and analytical methods, as well as new insights on the socio-ecological dynamics of urban populations.

26 Cognitive Correlates of Functional Assessment Tool in Veterans with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Objective:Limitations of traditional neuropsychological assessment include testing in a highly controlled environment designed to minimize distraction. While informative, it may not fully capture real-world cognitive functioning. This may be particularly important for individuals with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI), a subset of whom report subtle challenges with complex cognitive functioning that are not consistently captured by neuropsychological assessment. The objective of this study was to extend previous work examining cognitive correlates of performance on functional assessment tool, the Goal Processing Sale (GPS), in a larger sample of Veterans with mTBI.Participants and Methods:46 Veterans with chronic mTBI completed GPS and neuropsychological measures (mean age = 43.5; education = 15 years; 89% male). 93% of participants had clinically significant PTSD (PCL-M > 31). The GPS is an ecologically valid assessment in which participants plan and execute a complex task following specified rules under a time constraint. Performance is rated on a 0 (not able) to 10 (absolutely not a problem) scale in 8 domains: 1) Planning, 2) Initiation, 3) Self-Monitoring, 4) Maintenance of Attention, 5) Sequencing and Switching of Attention, 6) Flexible Problem Solving, 7) Task Execution, and 8) Learning and Memory. The GPS Overall Performance is average of 8 domain scores. Neuropsychological assessment data were scored using standardized norms and transformed into z-scores. Scores were averaged into 2 domains: 1) Overall Attention/Executive Function (4 subdomains: Working Memory [Auditory Consonant Trigrams, WAIS-III Letter Number Sequencing], Sustained Attention [Digit Vigilance Test], Inhibition [D-KEFS Stroop Inhibition], Mental Flexibility [Trail Making Test B, D-KEFS Stroop Inhibition Switching, Design Fluency Switching, Verbal Fluency Switching]) and 2) Overall Memory (2 subdomains: Total Recall [HVLT-R, BVMT-R], and Delayed Recall [HVLT-R, BVMT-R]).Pearson correlation coefficients were used to determine relation between overall GPS and overall executive function performance, as well as 8 GPS subdomain and 8 neuropsychological domain/subdomain scores. To adjust for multiple comparisons, p < .01 was used.Results:Overall GPS performance was statistically significantly related to Overall Attention/Executive Functioning and Overall Memory. Investigating further, multiple significant subdomain relations emerged. GPS Planning was related to Inhibition. GPS Self-Monitoring and GPS Task Execution were related to Mental Flexibility. GPS Maintenance of Attention and GPS Flexible Problem Solving were related to Mental Flexibility and Inhibition. GPS Sequencing and Switching of Attention was related to Mental Flexibility and Total Recall.GPS Learning and Memory was related to Working Memory, Mental Flexibility, and Inhibition. GPS Initiation was not related to neuropsychological measures.Conclusions:Current findings build upon prior work establishing validity of GPS functional assessment measure (Novakovic-Agopian et al., 2012). Seven of 8 GPS subdomains were related to at least one aspect of executive functioning assessed with neuropsychological measures, with the majority related to mental flexibility. Taken together, findings suggest that the GPS converges with traditional measures, offering a method to capture multiple aspects of executive functioning applied together. Further, it may also be useful tool capturing aspects of executive functioning in complex, ecologically-valid settings often not captured with traditional neuropsychological assessment.

2 The Role of Flexibility in Learning in Autistic Teens

Objective:Autistic youth have impaired executive functioning (EF) and these challenges increase throughout adolescence. Deficits in EF have been associated with poor adult outcomes, decreased availability for learning, and linked to academic outcomes. Specifically, flexible problem solving is greatly reduced in autistic youth. We aim to investigate how flexibility contributes to learning in autistic youth and their typically developing peers.Participants and Methods:Participants included 44 teens with (n=22) and without (n=22) ASD. All teens were 14-18 years old (ASD M = 15.77, SD = 1.05; TD M = 15.73, SD = .96) with FSIQ 3 70 (ASD M = 105.92, SD= 16.17; TD M = 107.93, SD = 10.14). Teens with ASD met DSM-5 criteria for autism supported by the SCQ and/or ADOS-2. All participants completed the California Verbal Learning Task (Child or Third Edition) over zoom. Parents reported on their child’s flexibility skills on the Flexibility Questionnaire (FQ) which encompasses 5 subscales: routines/rituals, transitions, special interests, social flexibility, and generativity. Independent samples t-tests examined group differences in performance on the CVLT, measured by the long delay recall and learning slope. Bivariate correlations examined the relationship between learning and flexibility in the autistic group. Linear regression was used to determine how flexibility contributes to learning above and beyond age, gender, and diagnosis.Results:Autistic youth had significantly lower scores on the CVLT long-delay recall (t = 2.311, p = .026) and the learning slope (t = 1.186, p = .038) than their typically developing peers. Special interests on the FQ were related to both performance on the first trial of the CVLT (r = -.482 p = .023) and the short delay cued recall (r = -.469 p = .028) in the autistic group. Fewer transition related problems were predictive of higher scores on the CVLT above and beyond age, gender, and diagnosis (R2 = .366, B = - .088, p = .030).Conclusions:Learning was significantly lower in autistic teens compared to their typically developing peers. Additionally, autistic youth had a less steep learning slope than their typically developing peers. Autistic youth may focus on the first group of words only and don’t flexibly update their list to add new words as the trials go on. Autistic youth with more restricted interests have difficulty with the first trial due to the shifting required when starting a new unfamiliar task. Additionally, youth with a greater focus on their own interests had more difficulty on cued recall indicating that these youth may have had trouble shifting when prompted to use semantic categories. Fewer challenges with transitions were a significant predictor of learning above and beyond age, gender, and diagnosis. Previous research has shown large discrepancies between parent-report and laboratory-based tasks in autistic youth. This project highlights two unique measures of different modalities that show similarities in their ratings emphasizing their potential as good representations of overall skills. Future research should utilize a larger sample size to continue to examine the role of flexible problem solving in working memory and learning in autistic youth.

The Development of Flexible Problem Solving: An Integrative Approach.

Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the school years, lacks a unifying framework, obscuring the developmental timing of flexible problem solving. Therefore, in this review paper, previous findings are gathered, organized, and integrated under a common framework to unveil how and when flexible problem solving develops. It is showed that the development of flexible problem solving coincides with increases in executive functions, that is, inhibition, working memory and task switching. The analysis of previous findings shows that dealing with goal-irrelevant, non-salient information received far more attention than generalizing in the presence of goal-irrelevant, salient information. The developmental timing of the latter can only be inferred from few transfer studies, as well as executive functions, planning and theory of mind research, to highlight gaps in knowledge and sketch out future research directions. Understanding how transfer in the presence of seemingly relevant but truly irrelevant information develops has implications for well-balanced participation in information societies, early and lifespan education, and investigating the evolutionary trajectory of flexible problem solving.

PARTICIPATION OF INNOVATIVE PERSONNEL IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS IN THE ORGANIZATION

The article deals with the problem of the participation of innovative personnel in the implementation of management functions in an organization. The purpose of the study is to identify the role of innovative personnel in the implementation of management functions in an organization. Materials and research methods used in the article: monographic, historical, expert, induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, systematic approach. Research results. The involvement of employees in management in economic science began to be considered from the end of the first half of the 20th century. Later, the idea was developed within the framework of the concept of participatory management and since the 1980s began to be actively used in manufacturing organizations. A modern organization is subject to constant multidirectional influence of the external and internal environment. A quick response to these impacts allows the organization not only to maintain its competitiveness, but also to become a leader in the market. For rapid and qualitative changes, innovations are needed, with the help of which the processes of positive changes in the organization will be revolutionary. Innovative personnel, consisting of innovative employees, in an organization can be involved in the implementation of management functions, thereby bringing it certain benefits in the form of more flexible problem solving, innovative proposals for current activities and non-standard solutions to emerging issues. Conclusions. The participation of innovative personnel in management gives certain advantages to the organization. This direction of cooperation is chosen primarily by organizations located in highly competitive markets, where decisions must be made taking into account all aspects of the market environment, including uncertainty, risk, competitors' actions, the impact of scientific and technical progress, global transformations, etc. For the effective implementation of this area of activity, the management in the organization must create the necessary conditions that will contribute to the competent work of innovative personnel to reveal their creative and innovative capabilities in the field of tasks to be solved.

Teacher positioning, student mathematics identity and the mediating effects of problem-solving flexibility

The students’ perception of how they are positioned by their teachers offer valuable insights into how teachers might engage students in the act of learning, construct themselves and acts in ways desirable to students, and how they might make the learning process a more enjoyable one for students. Teacher positioning is an important factor in developing the student mathematics identity. It is through positioning that a teacher communicates a set of rights, duties, and obligations that are linked to the position. In this study, we explore the relationships between students’ perception of teacher positioning and student mathematics identity and how problem-solving flexibility mediates this relationship. The study employed a mixed-methods research design. A sample of 12 mathematics teachers responded to the Teachers’ Perception of Mathematics Identity Survey while their corresponding students, with a total of 508 Grade 11 students responded to the Students’ Perception of Teacher Positioning Survey, Student Mathematics Identity Scale, and Problem-Solving Flexibility Test. The correlational statistics and mediation analysis employing a structural equation model were used to investigate the relationships among the variables of the study. In-depth interviews of the teachers and focus group discussions with students were conducted and subjected to qualitative content analysis. Results of the mediation analysis showed that problem-solving flexibility partially mediated the relationship between students“ perception of teacher positioning and student mathematics identity. Knowing that students” perception of how they are positioned by their teachers influences students’ problem-solving flexibility and student mathematics identity, mathematics instruction that promotes flexibility is encouraged.

Exploring individual differences in infants' looking preferences for impossible events: The Early Multidimensional Curiosity Scale.

Infants are drawn to events that violate their expectations about the world: they look longer at physically impossible events, such as when a car passes through a wall. Here, we examined whether individual differences in infants' visual preferences for physically impossible events reflect an early form of curiosity, and asked whether caregivers' behaviors, parenting styles, and everyday routines relate to these differences. In Study 1, we presented infants (N = 47, Mage = 16.83 months, range = 10.29-24.59 months) with events that violated physical principles and closely matched possible events. We measured infants' everyday curiosity and related experiences (i.e., caregiver curiosity-promoting activities) through a newly developed curiosity scale, The Early Multidimensional Curiosity Scale (EMCS). Infants' looking preferences for physically impossible events were positively associated with their score on the EMCS, but not their temperament, vocabulary, or caregiver trait curiosity. In Study 2A, we set out to better understand the relation between the EMCS and infants' looking preferences for physically impossible events by assessing the underlying structure of the EMCS with a larger sample of children (N = 211, Mage = 47.63 months, range = 10.29-78.97 months). An exploratory factor analysis revealed that children's curiosity was comprised four factors: Social Curiosity, Broad Exploration, Persistence, and Information-Seeking. Relatedly, caregiver curiosity-promoting activities were composed of five factors: Flexible Problem-Solving, Cognitive Stimulation, Diverse Daily Activities, Child-Directed Play, and Awe-Inducing Activities. In Study 2B (N = 42 infants from Study 1), we examined which aspects of infant curiosity and caregiver behavior predicted infants' looking preferences using the factor structures of the EMCS. Findings revealed that infants' looking preferences were uniquely related to infants' Broad Exploration and caregivers' Awe-Inducing Activities (e.g., nature walks with infants, museum outings). These exploratory findings indicate that infants' visual preferences for physically impossible events may reflect an early form of curiosity, which is related to the curiosity-stimulating environments provided by caregivers. Moreover, this work offers a new comprehensive tool, the Early Multidimensional Curiosity Scale, that can be used to measure both curiosity and factors related to its development, starting in infancy and extending into childhood.

Pemberdayaan Guru Sekolah Dasar Muhammadiyah dalam Pembudayaan Literasi Numerasi Era Pandemi Covid-19

Numeracy is a strong foundation for attitude and action during the Covid-19 period. The cultivation of numeracy literacy at SD Muhammadiyah PK Boyolali has not met expectations. There are three objectives of this activity. 1) Teachers master the strategy of cultivating numeracy literacy. 2) The teachers apply the strategy of cultivating numeracy literacy well, students are happy and accustomed to learning numeracy literacy. 3) There is an increase in students' numeracy literacy skills. The activity was carried out at SD PK Boyolali and Banyudono Boyolali, January-June 2021. Participants were 25 teachers and 114 students. The implementation method goes through three stages, namely workshops, implementation assistance and assessment. Results of the activity: 1) The teachers mastered the strategy of cultivating numeracy literacy well, shown in the learning tools. 2) The teachers apply the strategy of cultivating numeracy literacy by a) getting used to various strategies for various questions, b) giving enough time to try questions, c) inviting them to solve problems in other ways, d) inviting them to look at other possibilities, e) when facing difficult problems not avoided but using time to repeat and work on more questions, and f) flexibility in problem solving. The students are happy and accustomed to learning numeracy literacy by, a) practicing consistently, disciplined and continuously, b) studying mathematics material outside the school curriculum, c) avoiding looking at answers before trying to work on questions, d) practicing writing down answers systematically, and e) try to solve the problem in another way. 3) There is an increase in students' numeracy literacy skills, both in personal, socio-cultural, and scientific contexts.

Changing between representations of elementary functions: students\u2019 competencies and differences with a specific perspective on school track and gender

BackgroundFunctional thinking is characterized as a specific way of thinking in relationships, dependencies, and changes. Hence, beyond mathematics, it is also crucial for other (STEM) disciplines as well as for everyday situations. In particular, dealing with different representations of functions and changing between them are core function-related competencies, which are correspondingly needed for the formation of appropriate concepts and flexible problem-solving in various situations. Therefore, this study investigated students’ (N = 856) competencies related to representational changes of elementary functions and, in particular, assessed which changes are especially easy or difficult for students. Moreover, possible school track and gender differences were investigated by performing DIF analyses within the framework of Rasch modeling. The data were gathered using a paper–pencil test administered after the students had completed the teaching unit on linear functions in their mathematics lessons.ResultsAltogether, students were found to have limited competencies related to representational changes of elementary functions. There was no clear pattern regarding the types of representational change that were difficult or easy for them. Moreover, girls performed better on purely mathematical tasks, whereas boys did better at a complex modeling and problem-solving task. Classes from the academic track produced better results in tasks with a situational context compared to their peers from non-academic tracks, who performed relatively strongly on purely mathematical tasks.ConclusionsThese findings imply that various representations and representational changes should be included in lessons on functions to support students in building a rich concept of function and flexible problem-solving skills, thus fulfilling curricular requirements and responding to didactical considerations. In particular, the teaching of functions should be more balanced by mixing tasks with and without a situational context and the corresponding representational changes. These findings should motivate teachers, in particular those teaching non-academic tracks, to give a more prominent role to situational contexts in their lessons on functions in order to foster their students’ learning and build a bridge between mathematics and real-world situations.

Quadrature photonic spatial Ising machine.

As a computing accelerator, a large-scale photonic spatial Ising machine has great advantages and potential due to its excellent scalability and compactness. However, the current fundamental limitation of a photonic spatial Ising machine is the configuration flexibility for problem implementation in the accelerator model. Arbitrary spin interactions are highly desired for solving various non-deterministic polynomial (NP)-hard problems. In this paper, we propose a novel quadrature photonic spatial Ising machine to break through the limitation of the photonic Ising accelerator by synchronous phase manipulation in two sections. The max-cut problem solution with a graph order of 100 and density from 0.5 to 1 is experimentally demonstrated after almost 100 iterations. Our work suggests flexible problem solving by the large-scale photonic spatial Ising machine.

The de-institutionalisation of power beyond the state

The making of modern authority centred on efforts to formalise and de-personalise power, and transnational orders such as the European Union have often been viewed as an extension of that project. As this article argues, recent developments tell a different story. More than a decade of crisis politics has seen institutions subordinated to and reshaped by individuals and the networks they form. Locating these tendencies in a wider historical context, the article argues that greater attention to informality in transnational governance needs to be paired with greater recognition of the normative questions it raises. Just as a separation between rulers and the offices of rule was central to the making of modern legal and political structures, the weakening of that separation creates legitimacy problems for contemporary authorities both national and supranational. Rather than acclaimed as flexible problem-solving, the step back from institutions should be viewed as a challenge to accountable rule.

Evaluate the Effectiveness of Teaching Physics through Teaching Knowledge about the Motion of the Thrown Object

Objectives of the study: Evaluate the effectiveness of lectures designed and apply teaching methods for Grade 10 Physics. Research Methods: We conducted research with 81 students (Grade 10). Tools used include: lesson plans teach knowledge about the movement of the thrown object and are taught over a 2-week period. We first design the scientific progression diagram for the teaching activity, and the next is a process for specific teaching about the motion of the thrown object. To evaluate the research results, we use a carefully designed Rubric to evaluate the physics teaching process in the way that I propose. Research results: I find that students are excited about this teaching method, they are interested in examining knowledge, applying knowledge to solving situations in life, narrowing the gap between theory and real life, and increase students' motivation and flexibility in problem solving.

Bending and Unbending of Tools by New Caledonian Crows (Corvus Moneduloides) in a Problem-Solving Context

New Caledonian crows (NCCs) are proficient tool manufacturers and flexible problem solvers. A study reporting innovative hook bending by a captive individual in 2002 (Weir et al., 2002), has since been cited as a remarkable case of causal reasoning in animals. Recently, however, tool bending has been found to form part of the species’ natural behavioral repertoire. Yet, further studies examining the flexibility of this behavior in controlled novel problem-solving contexts are lacking. We tested 17 captive NCCs, in one tool bending and three unbending problem-solving experiments. In the first study, two groups of five subjects were trained to select inflexible straight or hooked tools respectively for retrieving food from an apparatus. In the subsequent test, the crows were supplied with the wrong, but now pliable, type of tool. Three subjects made hooks while one subject straightened tools consistently. In the second study, 13 subjects, including five from Study 1, were tested. Ten subjects received an unbending task with a Z-shaped tool without prior training. Both angles needed to be straightened for the tool to become sufficiently long for reward retrieval. Four subjects solved the task at least once, and two did so consistently. Eight subjects, including the previous solvers, were challenged with yet another apparatus, requiring novel unbending behavior. One crow succeeded in both unbending tasks consistently. Our results show that NCCs can flexibly bend or unbend pliant material to create tools for solving novel tasks. The underlying cognitive mechanisms seemingly varied across individuals although trial-and-error learning prevailed.

Verktygsrelaterad flexibilitet som undervisningskompetens

In the current debate concerning the Swedish Schools of Music and Performing Arts (SMPAs) the concept of flexibility is frequently used. Here it mostly describes the necessity to take students’ requests and needs into account in teacher education and the institutions’ ability to adapt to changing demands for artistic activities among children and adolescents. In contrast to this view, this study examines flexibility as a central competency of the teaching profession and particularly in a curriculum-free environment such as the SMPAs. Resting on the assumption that teachers with a large toolkit have a certain advantage in practising flexibility, the study is based on interviews with three multi-instrumentalists, all of them experienced music teachers in SMPAs. The analysis suggests three forms of flexibility that are related to the teachers’ use of instrumental tools, each of them emerging in particular kinds of teaching activities: problem-solving flexibility in instrument-related counseling, method flexibility in ensemble leadership, and role flexibility in group music-making. The findings are discussed in relation to ideals of teacher specialization and versatility, and the notion of tool-based flexibility is distinguished from improvisation as a teaching skill.

What's Scientific About Forensic Science? Three Versions of American Forensics, 1903-1965, and One Modest Proposal.

Growing attention to the philosophy of forensic science in recent decades has sometimes included the question: "what kind of science is forensic science"? Yet there has been little discussion of how that question has been differently construed in terms of period, place, and prevailing anxieties. Following an examination of the unique character this question must have in an American legal context, this article reviews three modes/phases of response, rooted successively in individual authority, comprehensive method, and institutions of flexible problem-solving. The conclusion applies this complex legacy in two ways: first to clarify areas of incoherence and tension in recent attempts to underwrite forensic sciences, and second to supply a fuller framework for Max Houck's argument for the essentially historical character of forensic science.

Designing and Using Geometry Case Studies in the Last Grade at Secondary Schools by Integrated Teaching Method in Vietnam

The objective of the study to evaluate the effectiveness of lectures designed and applied integrated teaching methods for geometry in grade 9. We conducted research with 10 teachers and 154 students in both experimental and control classes (Grade 9). The tools used include: integrated lesson plans that are selected for the topic (circle) and taught in a period of 3 weeks. Firstly, we designed integrated teaching case studies through two examples, followed by a specific example that will guide teachers to integrate Mathematics in Grade 9. To evaluate research results, we used a carefully designed Rubric to evaluate the teacher's Math teaching process; SPSS version 20 software helps us compare students' Math learning results between experimental and control classes. We have found that there is a significant increase in students' Math performance in terms of how they perceive knowledge, apply knowledge to solve life situations, narrow the gap between math and life situations, increase motivation and increase student flexibility in problem solving.

Arthropod Intelligence? The Case for Portia.

Macphail’s “null hypothesis,” that there are no differences in intelligence, qualitative, or quantitative, between non-human vertebrates has been controversial. This controversy can be useful if it encourages interest in acquiring a detailed understanding of how non-human animals express flexible problem-solving capacity (“intelligence”), but limiting the discussion to vertebrates is too arbitrary. As an example, we focus here on Portia, a spider with an especially intricate predatory strategy and a preference for other spiders as prey. We review research on pre-planned detours, expectancy violation, and a capacity to solve confinement problems where, in each of these three contexts, there is experimental evidence of innate cognitive capacities and reliance on internal representation. These cognitive capacities are related to, but not identical to, intelligence. When discussing intelligence, as when discussing cognition, it is more useful to envisage a continuum instead of something that is simply present or not; in other words, a continuum pertaining to flexible problem-solving capacity for “intelligence” and a continuum pertaining to reliance on internal representation for “cognition.” When envisaging a continuum pertaining to intelligence, Daniel Dennett’s notion of four Creatures (Darwinian, Skinnerian, Popperian, and Gregorian) is of interest, with the distinction between Skinnerian and Popperian Creatures being especially relevant when considering Portia. When we consider these distinctions, a case can be made for Portia being a Popperian Creature. Like Skinnerian Creatures, Popperian Creatures express flexible problem solving capacity, but the manner in which this capacity is expressed by Popperian Creatures is more distinctively cognitive.

Flexibility in Problem Solving: Analogical Transfer of Tool Use in Toddlers Is Immune to Delay.

Solving problems that are perceptually dissimilar but require similar solutions is a key skill in everyday life. In adults, this ability, termed analogical transfer, draws on memories of relevant past experiences that partially overlap with the present task at hand. Thanks to this support from long-term memory, analogical transfer allows remarkable behavioral flexibility beyond immediate situations. However, little is known about the interaction between long-term memory and analogical transfer in development as, to date, they have been studied separately. Here, for the first time, effects of age and memory on analogical transfer were investigated in 2–4.5-olds in a simple tool-use setup. Children attempted to solve a puzzle box after training the correct solution on a different looking box, either right before the test or 24 h earlier. We found that children (N = 105) could transfer the solution regardless of the delay and a perceptual conflict introduced in the tool set. For children who failed to transfer (N = 54) and repeated the test without a perceptual conflict, the odds of success did not improve. Our findings suggest that training promoted the detection of functional similarities between boxes and, thereby, flexible transfer both in the short and the long term.