This review examines the properties of aluminium matrix composites produced by friction stir processing and the types of reinforcements that have been explored recently. The demand for light yet strong parts appears to be growing, as regular aluminium alloys cannot provide sufficient strength, wear, or corrosion protection. Friction stir processing may offer a solid-state method for achieving finer grains and distributing particles more evenly, without the drawbacks of casting. Authors list a variety of filler types – ceramics like SiC or Al₂O₃, metals such as copper or scandium, carbon-based materials like graphene sheets, and even waste products like rice husk ash or eggshells. Those additions are reported to boost stiffness, hardness and resistance to corrosion. Yet, the exact influence often depends on the tool shape, spin speed, travel speed, and the number of passes made. Those process settings appear to control where particles end up, how well they adhere, and the overall performance. The paper highlights why these FSP composites may be significant for applications such as planes, cars, boats, and heat sinks, particularly when eco-friendly fillers are utilised. Still, some problems remain unsolved: particles can clump, bonds may break, and even tiny changes in parameters can disrupt the entire batch. Critics could argue that the current data are still scattered, making it hard to judge reproducibility. Looking ahead, the authors suggest mixing different reinforcements, utilising live monitoring of the stir zone, and incorporating more waste-derived materials. Those ideas could improve both the function and green grade of the composites, if they survive real-world testing. Nevertheless, the field lacks standardised tests, which can lead to conflicting results. Some labs use low tool speeds to avoid overheating; others push high rotations for finer grains. These choices entail trade-offs that readers should consider when evaluating the claimed benefits in practice.

Abstract Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is a direct energy deposition-based additive manufacturing process that uses an arc welding power source to fabricate large-scale 3D components from wire feedstock. In order to optimize the WAAM process, it is crucial to understand how process variables, such as shielding gas composition, affect build quality. This study investigates the effects of pure Ar, pure CO 2 , and Ar+CO 2 (80:20) shielding gases on single- and multi-layer depositions using a six-axis robotic WAAM system equipped with an automated wire feeder. The objective is to evaluate how these gases influence the bead profile, microstructure, and mechanical properties of WAAM-deposited low-carbon steel. Results show that Ar+CO 2 shielding yields the widest bead profiles with a uniform surface finish, while CO 2 shielding enhances penetration but results in coarser microstructures and lower alloy retention. Ar shielding produces finer grains and the highest hardness, while tensile strength remains comparable under Ar and Ar+CO 2 , with the latter providing higher elongation. Charpy impact tests reveal that Ar-shielded builds have the highest toughness, CO 2 -shielded ones the lowest with brittle features, and Ar+CO 2 -shielded builds exhibit toughness and fracture behavior similar to those under Ar shielding. These findings provide valuable insights for selecting shielding gases to tailor the geometric and mechanical performance of WAAM builds.

Tribocorrosion is the synergistic action of mechanical wear and chemical corrosion. The repassivation (reformation of the surface oxide) plays a significant role in the extent of volume loss and metal release caused by metal oxidation. However, a too rapid repassivation can also increase the hardness of the interface resulting in larger mechanical wear rates, and consequently volume loss. Chemical complexation can hinder the repassivation and therefore increase the overall metal release and metal oxidation rates. The solution chemistry largely affects the precipitation rates of wear debris (including nanoparticles of corrosion products) and the lubrication at the interface, which primarily affects the mechanical wear and volume loss. By polarizing the sample during a tribocorrosion test, mechanical wear and chemical wear can be distinguished using the assumption that mechanical wear prevails under cathodic polarization and that Faraday’s law can be used to estimate the chemical wear fraction under anodic polarization. Here, we present a number of examples and factors aimed to improve the interpretation and usage of tribocorrosion tests. We combined multiple techniques with electrochemical/mechanical tribocorrosion tests of several alloys (Ti6Al4V, stainless steel 316L, and Co28Cr6Mo, both wrought and additively manufactured); laser scanning confocal microscopy to calculate the volume loss, scanning electron microscopy to image the wear track, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to measure the amount of metals in solution, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) inside and outside of the wear track to compare the surface oxide composition in the anodic and cathodic sites. A study on wrought 316L in salt and cassava flour found that cassava was able to hinder repassivation, increase the metal release, and lubricate the interface resulting in less volume loss, while still showing a similar specific wear rate than the salt solution reference. Wrought 316L exposed to phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), PBS with bovine serum albumin (BSA), and PBS, BSA, and hydrogen peroxide, provided several insights. It showed that the presence of BSA strongly reduced the mechanical wear, while increasing the metal release through complexation. When hydrogen peroxide was added, it rapidly increased the repassivation after a rupture of the surface oxide, which, however, did not result in lower tribocorrosion due to mixed mechanical/oxidative wear modus, which vastly increased the volume loss. The manufacturing method played a role as well, as shown for wrought versus additively manufactured (laser powder bed fusion) Ti6Al4V alloy. The additively manufactured titanium alloy was harder due to a finer grain structure, which resulted in lower tribocorrosion rates. Spot analysis of the surface composition inside and outside the wear track of the CoCrMo alloy revealed acidification of the wear track, as evidenced by higher amounts of oxidized Mo, in solutions without proteins, and a buffering effect of the proteins (no enrichment of oxidized Mo) in their presence. Distinguishing mechanical from chemical wear requires accurate potential selection and control, accurate current increase estimates, and a knowledge on the number of electrons expected in the corresponding metal oxidation, which can be tricky for some alloys. Figure 1

Composite coatings developed by electrochemical deposition have been extensively used to produce materials with tailored properties along with the benefits of dimensional accuracy and control over micro-structure. The versatile nature of the process and materials results in a variety of applications from automotive, electronics to micro-mechanical or biomedical devices involving different substrate materials. The transposability of electrodeposition process of composites to different substrates is still an open question. This work aims at investigating the electrochemical deposition of composite coatings on surfaces of different chemical nature and surface topography.To do so, electrolytic copper was co-deposited with alumina nanoparticles on Brass and Gold substrate under galvanostatic conditions in an acidic model bath. Characterization of substrate and the electrodeposited composite was performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), focused-ion beam (FIB) and 3-D laser profilometer and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD).It was observed that the roughness of the brass substrate does not affect the co-deposition process (incorporation of particles, copper grain growth and crystallographic orientation). However, chemical nature of the substrate plays a key role. On the gold substrate, alumina particles could be co-deposited while on brass no co-deposition was obtained. Moreover, the coating deposited on gold showed a finer grain size and a more pronounced grain orientation along 111 direction. The nucleation of copper on the substrates was found different depending on the chemical nature of the substrate but only in presence of particles in the bath, while it was identical in their absence. This leads to the conclusion that the initial particle-substrate interactions, linked to surface forces (double layer and hydration forces) according to Fransaer model [1], determines the further growth of copper and the associated particle incorporation.[1] J. Fransaer et al 1992 J. Electrochem. Soc. 139 413 Figure 1

Assessing the geographic dimension of diversification is paramount to integrate macroecology and macroevolution. Estimating ancestral ranges of species from phylogenies and spatial distribution of extant species has been fundamental for historical biogeography and can help in this endeavor. Yet, improvements in the available tools to estimate ancestral ranges are still necessary to produce fine-grained spatial reconstructions. We introduce a method called SBEARS (Site-Based Estimation of Ancestral Range of Species) to reconstruct ancestral ranges at finer grain resolutions, which does not require a priori definition of biogeographic regions and provides information about the spatial distribution of ancestral nodes in a user-friendly format. We test the robustness of SBEARS using simulated datasets and thereby demonstrate that the method reliably reconstructs ancestral ranges at rates higher than other methods implemented in the R packages BioGeoBEARS and rase. Further, we employ SBEARS to reconstruct ancestral ranges of Sigmodontinae rodents and compare them to those generated by BioGeoBEARS and rase. SBEARS builds upon other available methods as a reliable alternative for ancestral range reconstruction where a fine-grain geographic resolution is required.

The increasing demand for energy efficiency in manufacturing has driven the need for advanced modeling techniques to optimize the machining processes. The honing process, critical for achieving high-precision surface finishes in manufacturing, faces challenges in optimizing tool wear and material removal for enhanced sustainability and efficiency. This study develops a predictive modeling framework using machine learning techniques, including support vector regression (SVR), random forest (RF), and XGBoost, to forecast tool wear (h1–h8) and mass loss in honing processes. Experimental tests were conducted on EN-GJL-300 gray cast-iron workpieces using diamond abrasive blades (FEPA F120 and F240) under varied conditions (rotation speed, translation speed, and pressure). The models, trained with 5-fold cross-validation and hyperparameter tuning via GridSearchCV, achieved high accuracy, with SVR yielding R2 values of 0.9609–0.9782 for wear predictions and XGBoost achieving R2 of 0.9005 for mass predictions. Incorporating grain size as a predictor showed that finer grains (54 µm vs. 120 µm) reduced wear, thereby improving prediction reliability. The proposed models enable precise control of honing parameters, enhancing tool life and process efficiency, with implications for sustainable manufacturing in automotive and precision engineering applications.

Vibration-assisted welding has emerged as a high-quality weld production technique, with recent studies focusing on medium and high-frequency applications to enhance mechanical properties. This research aims to investigate and optimize process parameters using low-frequency vibration-assisted welding. The Taguchi method was employed to identify optimal conditions for improved weld quality. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) was used in conjunction with a low-frequency (100 Hz) vibratory setup to impart controlled vibration to the workpiece during welding. The effects of welding current, vibration time, and frequency were optimized using Taguchi methodology and response surface technique based on an L27 orthogonal array design. The results indicate that the most important factor affecting the required hardness, tensile strength, and impact strength is vibration frequency. Vibration-assisted welding of mild steel at optimized parameters 120 A current, 100 Hz frequency, and 60 s vibration time resulted in a maximum hardness of 97.16 RHN and enhanced impact strength. Low heat input, 100 Hz vibration frequency, and 100 s vibration time yielded optimal tensile strength. SEM analysis revealed a refined microstructure in the weld zone, attributed to weld pool excitation, which promotes finer grain formation and improved mechanical properties.

Climatic crises have been increasing rapidly since the late Holocene worldwide. Strategic planning needs multi-proxy records to understand the rate of ecosystem and climatic perturbations for generating mitigation maps. We present multiproxy records with isotopic composition (δ 13 C TOC , δ 15 N Bulk ), total organic carbon (TOC%), total nitrogen (TN%), total organic carbon to total nitrogen (C/N) ratio, palynofacies and grain size analysis of an AMS radiocarbon-dated Holocene sediment profile recovered from Kondagai lake (KLD), Tamil Nadu, India. Data sets are used to interpret the organic matter source and variation in the sediment deposition pattern. Enriched values of δ 13 C TOC and finer grain size between ~4.5 and 3.7 k cal yrs BP. represent the sources of organic matter were mostly aquatic plankton and C4-type vegetation (Poaceae), attested with low terrestrial inputs, which supports the fungal production, suggesting the shallower lake levels and drier period (parallel with the 4.2 ka event), indicating the weaker phase of the Indian monsoon. From ~3.7 to 2.5 k cal yrs BP, the lake had a high water level, marked by increased terrestrial flux, with higher sand % and depleted δ 13 C TOC values. From ~2.5 to 0.9 k cal yr BP, Lake witnessed the continuity of a warm episode, represented by the depleted values of δ 13 C TOC and coarser grain fraction at the episodic scale suggest the lake level fluctuation with marked flooding events. Higher values of δ 15 N Bulk , and C/N ratio suggest the altered element cycling in the latest phase of KLD Lake, coincides with Roman warm period (RWP). The findings enhance our understanding of organic matter sources, marking flooding events and lake level changes in accordance with monsoon variabilities, land use alteration by the combination of natural and anthropogenic actions. This investigation also highlighted the integrated effects of Indian monsoon and El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) variabilities over the last 4.5 k cal yrs BP.

This study aims to evaluate the effect of variations in current strength and welding speed in the TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding process on the tensile strength and microstructure characteristics of Aluminum Alloy 6061 material. The research method used was laboratory experiment with three variations of current strength (100 A, 110 A, and 120 A) and three variations of welding speed (3.33 cm/min; 3.77 cm/min; and 4.00 cm/min). The welding joints were made using a double V-type blunt seam, and tests were conducted on tensile strength and microstructure observations in the parent metal zone, heat affected zone (HAZ), and weld metal. The test results showed that the variation of welding parameters had a significant effect on tensile strength and microstructure formation. The highest tensile strength was achieved at a current of 120 A with a speed of 3.33 cm/min, indicating optimal weld penetration and a finer grain structure. Microstructure observations showed that increasing current and decreasing welding speed expanded the HAZ region and increased grain size. The conclusion of this study is that the combination of high current and low welding speed parameters provides the best joint quality in TIG welding of Aluminum 6061, both mechanically and microstructurally.

The greater challenges in the manufacturing and machine tool sectors are the periodic replacement of moving components due to wear, and its subsequent escalated product cost. The present research aims to address the issue by developing of novel lightweight surface composite reinforced with hybrid particles SiC and Y2O3 processed through the Friction Stir Process (FSP). The test specimens were prepared by FSP by following four different wt.% of hybrid particles. The sliding tribological examination was executed to examine the wear characteristics of the surface composite at both ambient and elevated temperature environments. The achievement of dynamic recrystallisation is acknowledged through microstructure and grain size analysis results that reveal the finer grain structure at the nugget zone with the smaller grain size. The wear assessment outcomes endorse the improved wear characteristics of the Al-3SC-1Yo variant by upholding its 126% and 53.88% higher wear resistance than the base material at ambient and elevated temperatures, subject to the normal load of 45 N. The post-worn-out surface analyses proclaim that ambient wear is driven by adhesion, two and three-body abrasion, whereas elevated temperature wear is driven by pure abrasion. It is comprehended from the wear results that 90% more wear loss is recorded during the elevated temperature than the same in the ambient environment. The quantitative comparison of ambient and elevated temperature wear through the observation of surface topography, and the inclusion of hybrid reinforcement on unique base materials are the key novelties of the proposed study.

This study investigated the resistance spot welding performance of 1.5 mm thick Mg‐6Sn‐1Ca and Mg‐7Sn‐1Ca magnesium alloys, focusing on the effects of welding current (12 kA to 16 kA) on tensile properties, hardness, fracture morphology, microstructure, and nugget diameter. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were employed for characterization. The results indicate that the Vickers hardness of Mg‐6Sn‐1Ca was highest in the nugget zone, followed by the heat affected zone, and lowest in the base metal, with the overall hardness peaking at 14 kA. For Mg‐7Sn‐1Ca, the hardness was highest in the base metal and lowest in the nugget zone at 12 kA to 14 kA, while at 16 kA, the nugget zone hardness became the highest and the base metal hardness the lowest. Both alloys exhibited brittle fracture characteristics, with coarse grains in the heat affected zone and finer grains in the nugget zone, while the base metal consisted of fine equiaxed grains. As the welding current increased, the grains in the nugget zone coarsened, and the nugget diameter reached its maximum at 14 kA, decreasing at 16 kA. This research provides a foundation for optimizing the resistance spot welding process of dissimilar magnesium alloys.

ABSTRACT The present study investigates the effect of microstructure evolution, including grain refinement and grain orientation, on the surface residual stresses of friction stir processed (FSP) Al6061 alloy. Grain rotation, dynamic recrystallization (DRX), and grain boundary migration are all induced by the FSP process, which results in notable microstructural alterations. According to EBSD analysis, the original S-rolling texture changes into Brass and Goss textures while grain size decreases and high-angle grain boundaries (HABs) increase. The residual stress distribution measured at various depths is correlated with these microstructural alterations, because of the severe plastic deformation and thermal cycles after FSP, residual stresses close to the surface become extremely compressive, reaching a maximum negative value of −564 MPa at 500 µm depth. Residual stresses change from compressive to tensile at deeper depths; at 2000µm and reaches 375 MPa. The relationship between residual stress redistribution and microstructural evolution shows that stable textures and finer grains lead to a more advantageous residual stress state. FSP significantly reduced wear depth and coefficient of friction by fine-tuning the grain structure and increasing the high-angle grain boundary content. Following FSP, SEM images revealed smoother surfaces with minimal damage.

Friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM) is a promising solid-state technique for fabricating high-strength aluminum alloys, such as Al-7075, which are difficult to process using conventional melting-based additive manufacturing (AM) methods. This study investigates the mechanical properties and tool wear behavior of seven-layered Al-7075 multi-layered composites reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC) and titanium carbide (TiC) fabricated via FSAM. Microstructural analysis confirmed defect-free multi-layered composites with a homogeneous distribution of SiC and TiC reinforcements in the nugget zone (NZ), although particle agglomeration was observed at the bottom of the pin-driven zone (PDZ). The TiC-reinforced composite exhibited finer grains than the SiC-reinforced composite in both as-welded and post-weld heat-treated (PWHT) conditions, achieving a minimum grain size of 1.25 µm, corresponding to a 95% reduction compared to the base metal. The TiC-reinforced multi-layered composite demonstrated superior mechanical properties, attaining a microhardness of 93.7 HV and a UTS of 263.02 MPa in the as-welded condition, compared to 88.6 HV and 236.34 MPa for the SiC-reinforced composite. After PWHT, the TiC-reinforced composite further improved to 159.12 HV and 313.46 MPa UTS, along with a higher elongation of 11.14% compared to 7.5% for the SiC-reinforced composite. Tool wear analysis revealed that SiC reinforcement led to greater tool degradation, resulting in a 1.17% weight loss. These findings highlight the advantages of TiC reinforcement in FSAM, offering enhanced mechanical performance with reduced tool wear in multi-layered Al-7075 composites.

This study systematically investigates the influence of pre-treated graphene doping on the microstructure and superconducting properties of MgB2, focusing on the effects of pretreatment processes, doping content (graphene and Cu), and sintering temperature. Key findings reveal that graphene pretreatment enhances dispersion homogeneity but has a limited impact on coated boron powders. Low-temperature sintering with trace Cu enables finer grain control, though graphene shifts the dominant reaction mechanism to solid-solid (Mg-B), impeding Mg diffusion and causing incomplete reactions even at high temperatures. System equilibrium requires prolonged low-temperature treatment or optimized doping. Crucially, the 5 wt.% Gr + 5 wt.% Cu sample, sintered at 800 °C, exhibits a decrease in the full width at half maximum of the phonon density of states peak. This arises from the tensile strain induced by high-quality graphene that counters residual stress and lattice distortion from carbon substitution, evidenced by mitigatingTcdegradation observed in Raman andTcmeasurements. In order to illustrate the results in contradiction to the conventional theory, a primary enhancement mechanism is proposed in the present work which is relevant to the co-growth of MgB2, Mg-Cu alloy, and amorphous phases on graphene micro-substrates. It is indicated that a dense, interconnected, spatially nested architecture within the MgB2matrix is the key point to overcome the doping-induced poor intergranular connectivity and prevent the low-field performance suppression.

Abstract We explore the mechanical properties of lithium metal and investigate how specimen size, crystallographic orientation, temperature and strain rate affect its deformation behavior. In single crystals, it is found that anisotropy plays an essential role both for elasticity and plasticity. We demonstrate that Li single crystal nanopillars plastically deform either by dislocation slip or by twinning, depending on orientation, loading mode (tension versus compression) and strain rate. In the cases of slip, deformation is predominantly mediated by dislocations with a Burgers vector of 1/2 ⟨111⟩, which are active on different planes. Conversely, twinning occurs singularly on {112} planes and displays a twinning/anti-twinning anisotropy, resulting in the strong dependence on orientation and loading mode observed. In terms of size dependence, specimens undergoing dislocation slip show a pronounced "smaller is stronger" trend in their yield strength. However, for specimens deforming exclusively by twinning, size effects are notably less significant. In polycrystalline nanostructures, opposed to the single crystal findings, the yield strength decreases with finer grain size in the spirit of an inverse Hall-Petch relationship, with grain boundaries being the central effect influencing their mechanical behavior.

In this comparative study between Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) versus conventional hot-rolled 18Ni(300) maraging steel, accelerated age-hardening kinetics was determined due to the variation in annealing behaviour. Conventionally produced 18Ni(300) maraging steel exhibited significant grain growth upon solution annealing at 850–1050 °C, which was not evident in the L-PBF counterpart where oxide particles present in as-built condition inhibited grain growth. Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis showed higher thermal stability of additively manufactured components up to 1050 °C, where significant grain growth was found in hot-rolled and annealed parts. Despite these differences, both processing routes achieved similar peak hardness after ageing, although L-PBF samples displayed faster initial hardening due to enhanced precipitation kinetics linked to finer grain structure and higher grain boundary density.

This study focuses on the characterization of MoN thin films deposited by the direct current magnetron sputtering (dcMS), mid-frequency magnetron sputtering (mfMS), and inductively coupled plasma magnetron sputtering (ICPMS) methods. Two mixed metallic phases, namely, α-Mo and γ-Mo2N, were detected from the film obtained using the dcMS, whereas only single γ-Mo2N phase was detected from the films obtained using the mfMS and ICPMS. Furthermore, the residual stress of the deposited thin films was strongly dependent on the sputtering process. As the mfMS and ICPMS deposition process were introduced, the film morphology changed from a porous columnar to a dense structure with finer grains than film deposited using dcMS. The surface roughness and crystal grain size of coated films were investigated by atomic force microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis methods. Furthermore, the variation in hardness and electrical resistivity of the MoN thin films deposited by three plasma-enhanced magnetron sputtering was explained on the basis of microstructure and residual stress of the thin films.

Aluminum coatings were electrodeposited on copper substrates using a chloroaluminate-based ionic liquid electrolyte composed of AlCl3 and [Bmim]Cl, employing both direct current (DC) and pulse reverse current (PRC) modes at a current density of 5 mA cm−2. Structural and surface characterizations using X-ray diffraction, field-effect scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, and inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy revealed that PRC mode deposition resulted in finer grain size (29 nm), smoother surface topography (Ra ∼4.2 nm), and more uniform coatings compared to DC mode (grain size 32 nm, Ra ∼14.2 nm). Both deposition modes produced high-purity aluminum (>99.997%) with minimal trace impurities. Electrochemical analyses in 3.5 wt.% NaCl demonstrated that PRC mode deposited coatings exhibited improved corrosion resistance, as indicated by lower corrosion current density (0.0012 μA cm−2), higher charge transfer resistance, and reduced donor density in the passive film. These findings highlight the advantages of PRC mode electrodeposition in achieving defect-minimized, high-purity aluminum coatings with enhanced corrosion performance under low-temperature conditions.

Abstract This study explores the effect of waves on sediment beds of known grain‐size distribution under controlled experiments for simulating coastal environments. The experimental setup replicates flat and upward sloping bed conditions, comprising a bimodal grain‐size distribution, and evaluates the changes in distribution under the surface waves of different frequencies. The results demonstrate a significant modulation from an initial bimodal to a unimodal grain‐size distribution in the sloping bed. In contrast, the original size distribution is retained in the flat bed. Statistical analyses revealed a shift towards finer grains in the upward sloping area, driven by wave‐induced sorting mechanisms. It is interesting to note that the observed grain‐size distribution in the transitional region from the plane bed to the upward sloping bed follows a Gaussian distribution, as both the coefficients of skewness and kurtosis show zero, irrespective of the wave frequencies. These outcomes align with previous research, contributing to a deeper understanding of sediment transport and grain‐size distribution in coastal zones. In addition, prototype field photographs of bedforms because of low tidal waves show immense similarities with the ripple morphology along the upward slope generated in the laboratory flume. Moreover, the concentration of heavier coarse fractions of grains occasionally dropped at the trough regions of the fine‐grained ripples of lunate shapes. The study's insights are valuable for improving coastal management strategies, particularly in areas vulnerable to sediment redistribution and erosion.

Abstract This study conducted a comparative evaluation of ERNiCrMo-4 filler alloy cladded onto AISI 316 stainless steel using Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG), Metal Inert Gas (MIG), and Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) cladding processes. A comprehensive analysis was performed, assessing surface morphology, cross-sectional microstructure, mechanical performance, and electrochemical behavior. The microstructural analysis showed that CMT cladding resulted in the finest grain structure followed by TIG cladding, while MIG cladding resulted in more coarse grains due to higher heat input and increased dilution. TIG cladding exhibited the highest carbide precipitation, contributing to localized hardening. The mechanical evaluation showed that CMT cladding achieved the highest tensile and impact strength, attributed to fine grains, high dislocation density, and strain hardening effects, followed by TIG and MIG cladding. However, in microhardness testing, TIG cladding depicted the highest values, due to significant carbide formation, followed by MIG cladding, while CMT cladding exhibited the lowest hardness due to minimal carbide precipitation. The electrochemical analysis showed that CMT cladding exhibited superior corrosion resistance because of its refined microstructure with minimal carbide precipitation, and thus, higher resistance to intergranular corrosion. In contrast, TIG cladding, with its extensive carbide formation, showed higher susceptibility to intergranular attack, while MIG cladding, though moderately resistant, was affected by higher dilution and coarser grains, making it less corrosion-resistant than CMT cladding. Overall, CMT cladding outperformed TIG and MIG cladding in terms of tensile strength, impact resistance, and corrosion protection, whereas TIG cladding excelled in microhardness.