This study aims to investigate the influence of Regional Original Revenue (PAD) and Special Allocation Funds (DAK) on the financial independence of regencies and cities in Central Java Province during the 2022–2024 period. Regional financial independence is a key indicator for assessing a local government's capability to fund its administrative operations without relying on central government transfers. Employing a quantitative research design, the study utilizes secondary data sourced from the official website of the Directorate General of Fiscal Balance (DJPK). A total of 35 regencies and cities were selected purposively as the sample. The analysis was conducted using panel data regression with a Fixed Effect Model approach, alongside classical assumption tests. All data processing and analysis were carried out using the EViews 12 software. Research findings reveal that locally generated revenue (PAD) exerts a positive and statistically significant impact on regional fiscal independence, with a regression coefficient of 0.234 and a significance level below 5%. In contrast, the Special Allocation Fund (DAK) demonstrates a negative and significant effect, indicated by a coefficient of -0.167. This suggests that excessive reliance on DAK tends to reduce a region’s fiscal autonomy. These findings underscore the strategic importance of optimizing PAD as a key driver for strengthening sustainable fiscal decentralization.

Financial inclusion has emerged as a crucial aspect of economic development, providing individuals and businesses with access to valuable and affordable financial products and services. In India, financial inclusion has gained significant attention as a means to empower marginalized and low-income populations, particularly women. One key mechanism for promoting financial inclusion among women in rural areas has been the establishment of Self-Help Groups (SHGs). This study examines the role of Self Help Groups (SHGs) in promoting financial inclusion and empowering Apatani women in Ziro Valley, Arunachal Pradesh. It explores how SHGs facilitate access to credit, enhance financial literacy, and influence household economic decision-making. Additionally, the research highlights the contribution of SHGs in fostering social cohesion, leadership skills, and community development. Through collective savings and microcredit facilities, these groups not only provide economic support but also strengthen womens financial independence and resilience. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative techniques to assess the financial behaviour of SHG members. A purposive sampling method was used to select 70 SHG members, ensuring a focused analysis of their financial practices and socio-economic transformations. Furthermore, interviews with local community members were conducted to gain deeper insights into the informal financial system, revealing the widespread prevalence of traditional fund associations as alternative financial mechanisms in the absence of formal banking institutions. The findings of this study offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of SHGs in promoting financial inclusion and enhancing financial behaviour among Apatani women. By expanding access to financial resources and strengthening financial literacy, SHGs serve as critical instruments of empowerment, driving sustainable economic growth and socio-economic development in Ziro Valley.

This research aims to analyse the socio-economic impact of coal mining and to examine the community’s perception of its effects. One of the developments in coal mining in South Kalimantan is in Sungai Raya District, Hulu Sungai Selatan Regency. The methods used in this research are qualitative descriptive analysis and the Likert scale. The study results show that 77% of respondents “Agree” that coal mining benefits the community. The benefits perceived by the community include increased economic activity, such as the availability of job opportunities, improved regional infrastructure, agricultural assistance (including machinery and farm access roads), support for farmers, and the development of local businesses. Meanwhile, 23% of respondents stated “Neutral” that there are still activities such as environmental management that require handling efforts, such as dust-related issues, damage to village crossing roads due to mining, and deterioration of river water quality. The economic impact generated by the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) activities of mining companies in 2024 totalled IDR 3,613,105,016, with eight aspects of activity designed to assist communities (community empowerment) in achieving financial independence, particularly in the agricultural sector. The environmental management and monitoring carried out by coal companies in Hulu Sungai Selatan Regency is assessed to be good, as evidenced by the achievement of environmental management performance assessment awards “Program Penilaian Peringkat Kinerja Perusahaan” (PROPER), which resulted in obtaining a Green PROPER rating from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) in 2024.

Background Women’s financial empowerment is central to achieving inclusive and sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa. Savings strategies, particularly within Savings and Credit Cooperative Organizations (SACCOs), play a pivotal role in enhancing women’s financial inclusion, independence, and decision-making capacity. Despite progress, rural women in Uganda continue to face barriers such as limited financial literacy, irregular income, and restrictive social norms. This study therefore examined the influence of savings strategies on women’s financial empowerment in Masaka District, Uganda, focusing on structured saving mechanisms and the moderating role of cultural factors. Methods A convergent mixed-methods design grounded in the pragmatic paradigm was employed. Quantitative data were collected from 340 women members of MAMIDECOT SACCO through structured questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained from interviews with 10 SACCO managers and focus group discussions. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and regression analysis in SPSS v25, whereas qualitative data were thematically analyzed to complement statistical results. Reliability (Cronbach’s α ≥ 0.70) and validity were confirmed, and ethical approval was obtained from the Kampala International University Research Ethics Committee. Findings Results revealed that savings strategies significantly enhanced women’s financial empowerment (R 2 = 0.304, F(4,335) = 36.526, p < 0.001), strengthening financial independence, decision-making, and household influence. Group savings fostered mutual trust, accountability, and self-reliance among members. Cultural factors did not significantly moderate the relationship, indicating that structured savings mechanisms were broadly effective across diverse socio-cultural contexts. Conclusions Savings strategies are a critical driver of women’s financial empowerment in rural Uganda. Policymakers and SACCOs should expand gender-sensitive savings products, strengthen governance, and scale up financial literacy programs to sustain empowerment outcomes and promote inclusive economic participation among women.

Javanese women in Sleman Regency continue to face role conflict stemming from traditional expectations as “konco wingking” (a term denoting their prescribed role within the domestic sphere) and the increasing demands of dual-earner family structures that necessitate public engagement. Despite the enduring influence of conventional gender norms, a significant number of women engaged in micro-entrepreneurial activities have successfully contributed to household income, mitigated economic burdens, and achieved greater financial independence. This study seeks to formulate a strategic model for economic empowerment through digital entrepreneurship within the tourism sector, aiming to foster a balanced integration between women's domestic responsibilities and public participation. Utilizing a mixed methods sequential explanatory approach, this study integrates quantitative data from 50 participants with qualitative insights derived from in-depth interviews with 30 informants. The findings indicate a marked gap between the participants’ limited digital entrepreneurial competencies and their considerable need for structured capacity-building initiatives. Nevertheless, the presence of robust familial support has played a pivotal role in enabling these women to manage and reconcile their domestic and public responsibilities. In response to these findings, the study proposes a holistic empowerment model that prioritizes digital skill development, institutional support mechanisms, and community-driven collaboration—aimed at strengthening women’s dual roles and promoting sustainable economic and social empowerment.

Introduction Movements for gender equality in Muslim countries represent a significant aspect of social progress. These movements not only strengthen women’s position in society but also foster a broader understanding of human rights within the context of cultural and religious traditions. Research on this topic reveals unique strategies and approaches that can be applied to achieve equality in other regions of the world. The present study aims to identify and analyze the novel strategies employed by women activists in the gender equality movement across Central Asian countries. Methods Data were collected through online surveys, content analysis, and ANOVA. Results The findings provide new insights into the contemporary approaches utilized by gender equality activists in Central Asia. Using Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as case studies, the study identified positive changes in gender relations. In Uzbekistan, the proportion of women in the local parliament increased to 30.8%. The figure was 18.8% in Kyrgyzstan, 12% in Tajikistan, and 9% in Kazakhstan. In Turkmenistan, the indicator has remained virtually unchanged, standing at 25.6% in 2024, which is 0.4% lower than in 2000. A comparison of women’s participation in the economy and politics of these countries revealed certain trends and disparities. The data demonstrate that the representation of women in local politics does not always correspond to their participation in leading economic positions. For instance, the highest numbers of women in business leadership roles are observed in Kazakhstan (31.1%) and Kyrgyzstan (21.7%). This contrasts with the regional average of 17.3% for Europe & Central Asia and 18.6% for OECD countries. Discussion These results show that contemporary women activists actively employ novel approaches, including social media engagement and cross-cultural alliance building, to promote their ideas and draw attention to issues of inequality. Their efforts and recommendations contribute to the formation of a more inclusive public discourse and a shift in the perception of gender roles within society. An important factor in overcoming gender inequality involves improving women’s access to education and enhancing their financial independence.

This article examines the role and contribution of the Badan Layanan Umum (BLU) model in improving the quality of education in Indonesia. Employing a qualitative research method through a literature study (library research), the study analyses the implementation of Badan Layanan Umum in various educational institutions, including public universities and vocational schools. The findings indicate that Badan Layanan Umum status provides educational institutions with greater financial autonomy and managerial flexibility, thereby enabling more responsive budgeting, reinvestment of funds in facility development and research, and the application of performance-based management systems. Case studies in several institutions suggest positive impacts on service quality and financial independence. Nevertheless, challenges remain, including a high level of dependence on government funding and the need to strengthen managerial capacity. The study concludes that Badan Layanan Umum is a strategic policy instrument for enhancing educational services, but it still requires continuous evaluation and policy reinforcement to optimally support improvements in the quality and governance of education in Indonesia.

Investment is crucial not only for ensuring financial independence in the future but also for protecting asset value against inflation. However, public interest in investment in Indonesia remains low, despite its potential to support the growth and stability of the capital market. This study aims to identify factors influencing investment interest, focusing on the roles of financial technology, financial inclusion, and financial literacy. The study's population consists of Generation Z members residing in Sidoarjo, with a sample of 100 respondents selected purposively using the Slovin formula. Primary data was collected through surveys, and analysis was conducted using SmartPLS. The results show that financial technology, financial inclusion, and financial literacy have a positive impact on investment interest. These findings suggest that increasing access to financial services, such as Investment Galleries and stock account openings, can enhance Generation Z’s interest in investing. Therefore, improving access and financial education could be key in encouraging more people, especially the younger generation, to participate in the capital market. The implications of this study highlight the need for policymakers and financial institutions to design targeted programs that strengthen financial awareness and accessibility for young investors.

The article provides a thorough analysis of the features of the legal regulation of basic local taxes in Romania as a key element in ensuring the financial independence of local governments. The authors justify the relevance of the study in the context of the processes of decentralization and harmonization of Romania’s tax policy with the norms and principles of the European Union. It is determined that financial autonomy is a fundamental condition for the effective functioning of local authorities and the quality provision of public services, and the presence of a stable system of local revenues, in particular through basic taxes and fees, provides the community with tools for strategic development. The components of the system of basic local taxes in Romania are described in detail, which include: construction tax, land tax, vehicle tax, fee for issuing certificates, approvals and permits, fee for using advertising media, as well as tax on impressions. The mechanisms of fiscal influence of local governments on tax processes, within the limits established by national legislation, are disclosed. Particular attention is paid to the tax on buildings, which in Romania is calculated not on the basis of the total area, as in Ukraine, but based on the economically justified value of the property. This approach allows taking into account the real solvency of the taxpayer, contributes to a fair distribution of the tax burden and creates incentives for the effective use of real estate. Similarly, the land tax is calculated taking into account three factors: area, purpose of the land plot and its location. Such features ensure the flexibility of local tax policy and adaptation to the socio-economic conditions of a particular community. The tax on vehicles, fees for administrative services, as well as taxes on advertising and entertainment activities play not only a fiscal but also a regulatory role. It is determined that in Romania there is a significant decentralization of powers in the tax sphere, which contributes to the growth of the responsibility of local governments, ensuring financial transparency and the development of local democracy.

Background Recently, the dynamics of gender and entrepreneurship have received more attention; however, the subtleties of how gender affects entrepreneurial intentions remain a challenge, despite empowerment through skills and formal training. This study seeks to establish gender differences in entrepreneurial intentions in educational settings as well as the broader context of gender equity in achieving financial independence among finalist undergraduate students. The results of this study contribute to a better understanding of gender-related factors that influence entrepreneurial intentions among undergraduate students. Methodology This was a cross-sectional and quantitative study. The study site was the town campus of Mbarara University of Science and Technology. The study population consisted of finalist businesses and students. The data were managed and analyzed using STATA version 17. T-tests of independent samples and means were used for data analysis. Results Of the 404 respondents, the majority were males (56.2%). Entrepreneurial Intentions were higher among females with a history of business ownership (M = 22.7, SD = 5.1) than among those without a history of business ownership (M = 19.5, SD = 6.9), at t = 2.25, p <0.05. Further, entrepreneurial intentions were lower among male students whose male caretakers or parents had business as an occupation (M = 19.5, SD = 6.9) than their counterparts whose male parents were not in business (M = 21.5, SD = 5.6) at t = 2.31, p <0.05. No other gender differences were found across other socio-demographic variables (p <0.05). Conclusion Entrepreneurial Intentions differed among females with a history of business ownership. We argue that the complex interplay of gender demographic gaps in shaping undergraduate students’ entrepreneurial aspirations cannot be significantly improved based on family background without conclusive equal opportunity training approaches. Designing a hands-on and role-modeling entrepreneurship curriculum can shape gender-mainstream intentions.

Microfinance has emerged as a transformative instrument for advancing socio economic development in marginalized communities, particularly among rural women. In Karnali Pradesh, Nepal where economic opportunities are scarce and infrastructure remains underdeveloped women’s entrepreneurial capacity is constrained by limited access to credit, low literacy levels, and socio-cultural barriers. This study investigates the extent to which microfinance programs enhance the economic and social empowerment of rural women entrepreneurs in the region. Using purposive sampling, primary data were collected from 124 women affiliated with microfinance institutions such as Nirdhan Utthan, Mahila Sahayogi, and Chhimek Laghu Bitta. Structured questionnaires captured pre- and post-program indicators. Statistical analyses, including paired sample t-tests, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, and McNemar tests in SPSS, evaluated changes in business performance, savings, expenditures, asset ownership, decision-making autonomy, mobility, social relationships, education, and health status. Findings reveal significant improvements in both economic empowerments manifested in higher daily sales, customer flow, investment, savings, and asset acquisition and social empowerment, reflected in greater decision-making authority, mobility, social bonds, and access to education and healthcare. The study concludes that microfinance acts as a multidimensional catalyst for women’s empowerment, fostering financial independence and promoting inclusive rural development. It recommends expanding microfinance services alongside integrated training to strengthen entrepreneurial competencies and dismantle structural barriers, thereby contributing to gender equality and sustainable economic growth.

This study explores the relationship between impulsive buying behavior, asset management practices, and financial well-being among young adults employed in the corporate sector. While rising incomes and lifestyle expectations have provided young professionals with greater financial independence, these same pressures often encourage short-term consumption at the expense of long-term security. Drawing on behavioral economics and household finance literature, the research investigates whether impulsive spending undermines financial well-being and whether asset management practices mediate this relationship. Using a sample of 102 corporate employees in Gurgaon, the study employed validated scales to measure impulsive buying, asset management, and financial well-being. Statistical analyses, including confirmatory factor analysis, ANOVA, t-tests, and mediation models, were used to examine demographic variations and structural relationships between constructs. The findings indicate that while impulsive buying is negatively associated with financial well-being, disciplined asset management significantly enhances financial outcomes and partially mediates the negative effects of impulsive consumption. Differences across age, income, and professional experience were also observed, with older and more experienced respondents demonstrating stronger asset management practices and higher financial well-being. These results align with prior research on self-control, consumption behavior, and life-cycle financial planning, while highlighting unique pressures within the corporate environment, such as social comparison and lifestyle maintenance. The study contributes to a deeper understanding of how behavioral and structural factors intersect in shaping financial attitudes, emphasising the importance of targeted financial literacy initiatives and organizational policies that encourage responsible financial practices among young professionals.

Background: Child labour remains a critical global issue, defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, potential, and dignity, hindering their physical and mental development. Despite Nepal's ratification of numerous international conventions and the establishment of national laws to combat it, child labour persists, with an estimated 1.1 million children engaged in work. The hospitality industry is one sector where this exploitation is prevalent. This study focuses on the socio-economic, cultural, and institutional factors driving child labour in the hospitality industry of Birendranagar, the capital of Karnali Province, which has the highest child labour rate in Nepal. Objective: The general objective of this research is to explore and analyze the key socio-economic, cultural, and institutional factors contributing to the prevalence of child labour in the hospitality industry of Birendranagar, Surkhet. Methods: This study employed a quantitative research design. Data were collected in 2024 from 104 child labourers working in hospitality establishments in Birendranagar-07, Surkhet, using a convenience sampling method. Primary data were gathered through a semi-structured questionnaire, covering socio-demographic characteristics and the causes of child labour. Simple frequency distributions were used for data analysis, with results presented in descriptive and tabular forms. Findings: The study revealed that the majority of child labourers were male (89.42%) and aged between 12-16 years (69.23%). The primary drivers of child labour were economic: the pursuit of financial independence (36.54%) and poverty (36.53%) were the most cited reasons, with 44.23% of respondents working to increase their family's basic income. Cultural factors played a significant role, with 53.85% of respondents acknowledging its influence; 30.36% believed cultural acceptance normalizes child labour. Key social factors included a lack of community support for education (36.54%) and peer pressure to join the workforce (29.81%). A majority (62.50%) of respondents did not believe parental negligence was a cause. Conclusion: The prevalence of child labour in Birendranagar's hospitality sector is a multifaceted problem rooted in acute economic deprivation, compelling children to seek work for survival and financial autonomy. This economic driver is reinforced by cultural norms that normalize child work and social systems that fail to provide adequate educational and recreational alternatives. Addressing this issue requires a multi-pronged approach that goes beyond legislation to tackle the deep-seated economic and socio-cultural underpinnings. Implication: The findings provide critical evidence for federal and provincial governments to formulate targeted policies and interventions aimed at creating a child labour-free society. The study also offers practical insights for NGOs and INGOs working in child protection, emphasizing the need for initiatives that address poverty alleviation, shift cultural perceptions, strengthen community support for education, and enforce child rights.

Women’s economic security is a key component of gender equality and sustainable development. In the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI), legal frameworks, particularly the Iraqi Personal Status Law, influence women’s financial independence by regulating inheritance and maintenance but fail to explicitly address women's right to work, income distribution, and financial autonomy. This legal gap has led to disputes within families and increased feminist critiques regarding women's economic security, while some Islamic interpretations advocate for financial protections for women. This study explores the impact of the Iraqi Personal Status Law on women's economic security through a comparative analysis of Islamic thought and feminist perspectives. Using qualitative legal analysis, the research examines statutory provisions and amendments in the KRI, alongside Islamic jurisprudential and feminist critiques, to assess their implications for women’s financial autonomy. The study tries to provide a nuanced understanding of these legal, religious, and feminist frameworks and offers recommendations for achieving a more equitable approach to women’s economic security in the region.

This study aims to determine the factors influencing the level of transparency required in local government financial reports on Sumatra Island until 2023. The following are the research factors: the amount of required LKPD disclosure, PAD, capital expenditure, total assets, and regional financial independence. Saturated sampling was used in this quantitative research design to select ten provinces. Data were sourced from local government financial documents. The results show that the level of required LKPD disclosure is substantially influenced by total assets, negatively and significantly by capital expenditure, and positively and significantly influenced by regional financial independence, but partially unaffected by the independent variable, PAD. However, the amount of required LKPD disclosure is also influenced by independent factors. The impact of independent factors in previous studies is shown in the literature review, which supports this.

This study aims to analyze the influence of service solvency and financial independence on financial sustainability. Financial sustainability is the ability of a local government to fulfill its obligations in providing services to the public, both now and in the future. Factors such as service solvency and independence are believed to influence financial sustainability in provincial governments on the island of Sumatra. This study used a quantitative approach with a saturated sampling technique involving 10 provincial governments on the island of Sumatra. Data were collected through the e-PPID website of the Supreme Audit Agency of the Republic of Indonesia (BPK RI) in the form of Audit Reports of the Republic of Indonesia for 2019-2023. Data were analyzed using panel data multiple regression to examine the relationship between variables. The results indicate that service solvency and financial independence, both partially, have a positive and significant effect on financial sustainability. Simultaneously, service solvency and financial independence have a significant effect on financial sustainability. This study concludes that improving service solvency and financial independence can enhance and promote financial sustainability. Therefore, local governments need to continue improving these two factors to encourage good, equitable, and high-quality public services, thus supporting financial sustainability.

In pursuit of sustainable development goal 5 (SDG5), this study underscores gender equity and women’s empowerment as pivotal themes in sustainable development. It examines the drivers of women’s empowerment, including education, economics, finance, and legal rights, using data from n=223 individuals, primarily women (68.4%) aged 20–30 (69.6%). The research methodology integrates descriptive statistical measures, machine learning (ML) algorithms, and graphical representations to systematically explore the fundamental research inquiries that align with SDG5, which focuses on achieving gender equity. The results indicate that higher educational levels, captured through ordinal encoding and correlation analyzes, are strongly linked to increased labor market participation and entrepreneurial activity. The random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM) classifiers achieved overall accuracies of 89% and 93% for the categorization of experience, respectively. Although 91% of women have bank accounts, only 47% reported financial independence due to gendered barriers. Logistic regression correctly identified financially independent women with a 93% recall, but the classification of non-independent participants was less robust, with a 44% recall. Access to legal services, modeled using a neural network, was a potent predictor of empowerment (F1-score 0.83 for full access cases), yet significant obstacles persist for those uncertain about or lacking legal access. These findings underscore that, while formal institutional access is relatively widespread among educated women literate in the digital world, perceived and practical barriers in the financial and legal realms continue to hinder empowerment. The results quantify these effects and highlight opportunities for tailored, data-driven policy interventions targeting persistent gaps.

This study aims to analyze the effect of Regional Revenue (PAD) and Balancing Funds on Regional Financial Independence, with Capital Expenditure as a moderating variable in districts and cities across East Kalimantan Province from 2019 to 2024. Employing a quantitative approach with a causal-comparative design, this research uses panel data derived from secondary sources, specifically the Regional Budget Realization Reports (LRA) published by BPKAD and DJPK. The analytical method applied is Moderated Regression Analysis (MRA) using SPSS version 22.0 to test both the direct and moderating effects among variables. The results indicate that Regional Revenue (PAD) has a positive and significant effect on regional financial independence, suggesting that higher PAD enhances local fiscal capacity. In contrast, Balancing Funds have a negative and significant impact, implying that greater reliance on central government transfers diminishes fiscal independence. Capital Expenditure functions as a dual moderator: it weakens the positive effect of PAD on regional independence but strengthens the impact of Balancing Funds on fiscal capacity when allocated effectively. The study recommends that local governments prioritize the expansion of PAD sources through more efficient tax and retribution management. Additionally, the effective and productivity-oriented allocation of capital expenditure should be emphasized to enhance long-term regional fiscal independence.

This systematic review examines gender-based violence experienced by migrant women from Islamic background, focusing on the types of violence, their health impact, and associated risk and protective factors. A comprehensive search was conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, Medline, PubMed, and Dialnet, complemented by manual searches in Google Scholar, following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Of the 332 studies identified, 25 met the inclusion criteria: quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies; full-text availability; studies addressing gender-based violence among migrant women from Islamic background; publications from 2004 to 2024; and studies published in English or Spanish. The mixed-methods appraisal tool was used to assess study quality. Results indicate that intimate partner violence was the most prevalent form, leading to severe physical and psychological consequences. Other forms of violence, such as female genital mutilation and forced marriage, were also reported. Risk and protective factors were identified across ecological levels. At the individual level, risk factors included language barriers and lack of awareness of support services, while spirituality and knowledge of rights were protective. At the microsystem level, the husband's control over the woman's life and economic dependence were risk factors, while concern for children and financial independence were protective. At the exosystem level, the negative role of religious leaders was a risk factor, while support from assistance services was protective. At the macrosystem level, cultural and religious norms that legitimize violence, along with the stigma surrounding divorce, were risk factors, whereas legislation against gender-based violence in host countries served as a protective factor.

This study aims to analyze the role of non-formal education based on women’s empowerment in enhancing business competence, economic independence, and household welfare in the era of social transformation. The method used is a literature review with a qualitative approach through descriptive analysis. Data were obtained from Google Scholar and credible websites with a publication range between 1964–2025. Data analysis was conducted using qualitative descriptive analysis, which involved organising information, identifying key themes, comparing findings across studies, and presenting comprehensive interpretations. From 50 initial articles, after a strict selection process based on relevance and quality, 32 articles were used as the main sources. The results indicate that non-formal education contributes significantly to building women’s entrepreneurial skills, increasing financial independence, and strengthening family welfare. The integration of digital literacy, social capital reinforcement, and community support has proven to enhance the effectiveness of non-formal education programs amid the dynamics of social transformation. This study also highlights the relevance of Human Capital Theory, Empowerment Theory, Capability Approach, and Network Society in understanding the relationship between non-formal education and women’s empowerment. The findings provide practical implications for the development of community-based programs, theoretical implications in enriching the literature on women’s empowerment, and policy implications in formulating sustainable socio-economic development strategies.