Fig Varieties Research Articles

Incidence and distribution of viruses in Tunisian fig orchards.

A survey for viruses was carried out in the main fig-growing areas of Tunisia and in a fig germplasm collection at the Institut Superieure Agronomique de Chatt Mariem of Sousse. A total of 232 leaf samples were collected randomly from symptomatic and symptomless fig trees of 26 cultivars, and tested by RT-PCR for the presence of Fig mosaic virus (FMV), Fig leaf mottle-associated virus 1 (FLMaV-1), Fig leaf mottle-associated virus 2 (FMMaV-2), Fig mild mottle-associated virus (FMMaV), Fig cryptic virus (FCV), Fig fleck-associated virus (FFkaV) and Fig latent virus 1 (FLV-1), using specific sets of primers. About 62.1% of the samples tested were found to be infected by at least one virus. FMV was the prevailing virus with a 34.5% incidence, followed by FLV-1 (32.4%), FMMaV (10.7%), FLMaV-1 (10.3%), FFkaV (10.3%), FCV (9.9%) and FLMaV-2 (4.3%). The highest infection rate was observed in Sfax (100%), followed by Takelsa (73.4%), Djebba (70.2%), Sousse (66.6%), Mornag (54.4%) and Rafraf (50%), whereas it was moderate in Sidi Fraj (23.3%). Among all viruses detected, FMV was the most widespread, especially in Djebba (51.3%), Sfax (50%) and Takelsa (40.6%). According to the fig varieties, the highest infection rates were in the commercial cvs. Hamouri (87.5%), Bayoudhi (75%), Bouhouli (70.3%), Zidi (54.2%) Bither (53.8%), Bither Abyath (66.6%) and Soltani (69.2%). The results show the need to develop a clean stock program to prevent the dissemination of fig-infecting viruses associated with Fig mosaic disease in Tunisia.

Genetic diversity of fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties by RAPD markers

Genetic diversity of fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties by RAPD markers

Fig (Ficus carica) Liquid Co-Products as New Potential Functional Ingredient: Physico-Chemical and In Vitro Antioxidant Properties

The aims of this study were to determine (i) the physico-chemical characteristics, (ii) the phenolic, flavonoid and anthocyanins profile, (iii) the organic acids and sugar content, and (iv) the antioxidant properties of the liquid co-product generated by the figs (FLC) processing industry in order to set standards for its applications as a potential ingredient of food products. The liquid co-products obtained from the peel and pulp of two fig varieties (colar and cuello de dama) were used. The polyphenolic profile and the organic acids and sugar were determined by HPLC. For the antioxidant activity, four different test systems were used (DPPH, FRAP, TBARS and FIC). The total phenolic, total flavonoid and total anthocyanin contents were also determined. The FLC from peel presented higher total phenolic, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents than FLC from pulp. The FLC obtained from peel and pulp had a high content of sugars, mainly glucose and fructose. As regards antioxidant activity, at all concentrations and with all methods, FLC obtained from peel presented higher antioxidant activity than the pulp FLC. FLC obtained from the peel and pulp could be an alternative for use as a natural preservative in food matrices due to its broad antioxidant activity.

A comparative study of phytochemical profile and in vitro antioxidant activities of dark and light dried fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties

To study bioactive compounds of the dried fig, nine varieties (3 dark and 6 light varieties) were analyzed for their phytochemical profile and antioxidant activities. The antioxidant activity was evaluated using four methods, including 2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl radical, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide scavenging effects and phosphomolybdenum assay. The results showed that the fig varieties with a dark skin contain higher amounts of total phenolics, total flavonoïds, anthocyanins, flavonols and proanthocyanidins than the lighter varieties. Our results also revealed that the antioxidant activities of the dark varieties were markedly better than those of the light ones. High correlations were found between phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities. Principal component analysis (PCA) manifests 86.91 of cumulative variance which indicates that the fig varieties were well distinguished by their bioactive phytochemical contents and antioxidant activities. PCA plot confirms a net separation between the dark and light dried fig varieties.

Assessment of Black Fig Varieties as Dried

Fig fruits contain high dietary fiber, phenolic compounds and minerals. Although there are many black figs varieties in Turkey, studies related to drying of colored figs scarce. In this study, 9 black colored figs varieties and standard fig varieties (Sarilop and Sarizeybek) from Fig Research Institute were dried, and quality parameters of dried fruits were investigated. The drying was conducted on trays by classical sun-drying. The results of this work clearly showed the suitability of black colored varieties with code number 1101, 1102 and 1012 for sun-drying.

Identification of phenylpropanoids in fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves.

In this study, the phenylpropanoid composition and antioxidant activity of identified components in fig (Ficus carica L.) leaves were examined. Known polyphenols rutin, isoschaftoside, isoquercetin, and chlorogenic acid were identified. Furthermore, caffeoylmalic acid (CMA) was the most abundant polyphenol and was identified for the first time. CMA exhibited antioxidant activity similar to that of vitamin C or catechin. Psoralen and bergapten were identified as known furanocoumarins, with psoralen being the most abundant. Moreover, psoralic acid glucoside (PAG) was identified for the first time. As a precursor of psoralen, PAG content was equivalent to the psoralen content in moles. Notably, the content of these compounds varied between the five fig varieties, and the furanocoumarin and PAG contents varied more than that of the polyphenols. Further investigations concerning the influence of CMA and PAG on human health are necessary to elucidate functionalities of fig leaves.

Optimization of phenolic compound recovery and antioxidant activity of light and dark dried fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties

The optimum conditions for extraction of total phenolic contents (TPC) and for enhancing the antioxidant activity from light and dark dried figs were determined. The effects of the solvent nature (acetone, ethanol, methanol, or water), solvent concentration (20–80%), acetic acid concentration (0–2%), extraction temperature (25–70°C), extraction time (0.5–4 h), sample to solvent ratio (1/25–1/100), and number of extractions (1, 2, and 3) were determined. The TPC was used to identify antioxidant compounds. 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was used to evaluate antioxidant activity. All extraction parameters had significant effects (p<0.05) on the TPC and the antioxidant activities. The best conditions were obtained with double extraction using 60% acetone without acidification, at 40°C for 120 min, and with a 1/75 solid to solvent ratio. These conditions resulted in TPC concentrations of 469.46 (light variety) and 399.79 mg of gallic acid (GAE)/100 g (dark variety), and antioxidant activities of 96.47 and 102.28 mg of GAE/100 g, respectively.

Investigating the in vitro bioaccessibility of polyphenols in fresh and sun‐dried figs (Ficus carica L.)

SummaryIn this study, in order to evaluate the in vitro bioaccessibility of fresh and sun‐dried figs, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total proanthocyanidin content (TPA) and the major phenolic compounds were determined at different phases of simulated gastrointestinal (GI) tract digestion for Sarilop and Bursa siyahi fig varieties. Four major phenolic compounds (chlorogenic acid, rutin, cyanidin‐3‐glucoside (C3G) and cyanidin‐3‐rutinoside (C3R)) were investigated for GI tract digestion. The results of in vitro GI tract digestion revealed that the dialysed fraction (IN) represented 9–26% and 1–22% of the initial TAC of the whole‐fresh yellow and purple figs, respectively. Moreover, in case of 2,2‐azinobis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline)‐6‐sulphonic acid (ABTS), TPA and chlorogenic acid contents, drying caused an increase in the IN fraction of yellow figs (38, 140, 50%, respectively). The bioaccessibility of C3G and C3R were quite low for fresh figs (0–5% of the initial values), whereas for dried figs, anthocyanins were not detected at all in the IN fraction.

Fig (Ficus Carica L.) Identification Based on Mutual Information and Neural Networks

The process of recognition and identification of plant species is very time-consuming as it has been mainly carried out by botanists. The focus of computerized living plant's identification is on stable feature's extraction of plants. Leaf-based features are preferred over fru its, also the long period of its existence than fruits. In this preliminary study, we study and propose neural networks and Mutual information for identification of two, three Fig cult ivars (Ficus Carica L.) in Syria region. The identification depends on image features of Fig tree leaves. A feature extractor is designed based on Mutual Information computation. The Neural Net works is used with two hidden layers and one output layer with 3 nodes that correspond to varieties (classes) of FIG leaves. The proposal technique is a tester on a database of 84 images leaves with 28 images for each variety (class). The result shows that our technique is pro mising, where the recognition rates 100%, and 92% for the train ing and testing respectively for the two cultivars with 100% and 90 fo r the three cultivars. The preliminary results obtained indicated the technical feasibility of the proposed method, which will be applied for mo re than 80 varieties existent in Syria.

Physicochemical and Technological Studies on Some Local Egyptian Varieties of Fig (Ficus carica L.)

Physicochemical and Technological Studies on Some Local Egyptian Varieties of Fig (Ficus carica L.)

Assessment of genetic diversity of Tunisian Barbary fig (Opuntia ficus indica) cultivars by RAPD markers and morphological traits

In this work, we report the analysis of genetic diversity of Tunisian Opuntia ficus indica ecotypes using morphological parameters and RAPD markers. Morphological evaluation showed phenotypic variation among the accessions studied. The used phenotypic traits appear a good descriptors for Barbary fig varieties. The subsequent RAPD banding patterns exhibited large number of polymorphic bands. Ten primers were screened to assess their ability to detect polymorphisms within 28 Tunisian Barbary fig cultivars and revealed 41 polymorphic RAPD markers. The percentage of polymorphic bands (73.21%) and the resolving power (Rp) (24.17) showed the efficiency of the used primers. The revealed RAPD markers permit to distinguish all considered cultivars and resolve homonymy problem. UPGMA dendrogram and principal component analysis were performed to access patterns of diversity among cultivars and its structuration. In fact the cultivars distribution occurs independently of their geographic origin. The overall distribution pattern of molecular variation suggested that about 92.58% of the total variance was accounted within group. The remaining 7.42% of the variation was hierarchically structured between components due to differentiation among groups. A positive and significant correlation was evidenced between morphological descriptors and RAPD markers. Wide phenotypic and molecular diversity was found in local cactus germplasm indicating a considerable potential for improving this crop. The combined analysis of phenotypic and molecular markers was also a valuable tool for assessing the genetic diversity in cacti.

Identification and Quantification of Furanocoumarins in Stem Bark and Wood of Eight Algerian Varieties of Ficus carica by RP-HPLC-DAD and RP-HPLC-DAD-MS

Furanocoumarins are the major phytoalexins of Ficus carica and are effective natural drug candidates for treatment of several types of cancer and skin disease. The objectives of this study were to analyze and quantify linear furanocoumarins, mainly psoralen and bergapten, in wood and bark of stems from eight Algerian varieties of fig and to establish the differences in the content of these metabolites in the eight local samples. Psoralen and bergapten contents in the stem bark and wood (in microg/g DW) varied respectively from 146.6 to 1110.3 and from 395.7 to 1671.8 for psoralen, and from 114.3 to 524.0 and from 144.2 to 718.6 for bergapten. This study fills a gap in our knowledge of furanocoumarin distribution in different parts of the fig tree. Psoralen and bergapten concentrations were higher in the wood than in the stem bark. Most of the dark fruited fig trees produce these two coumarins more than the green ones.

Purification and autolysis of the ficin isoforms from fig (Ficus carica cv. Sabz) latex

Ficin (EC 3.4.22.3), a cysteine endoproteolytic protease in fig trees' latex, has multiple isoforms. Until now, no data on autolysis of individual ficins (ficin isoforms) are available. Following purification, ficins' autolysis was determined by HPLC chromatogram changes and ultrafiltrations at different temperatures and storage times. These results showed that the number of HPLC peaks in latex proteins purification of Ficus carica cv. Sabz varied from previous fig varieties or cultivars. Proteolytic activity of ficins was inhibited by specific cysteine protease inhibitors, confirming the participation of the cysteine residue in the active site. The zeta potential of the first two eluted peaks (I and II) was negative, while that of other peaks were positive. All ficins were susceptible to autolysis when stored at high temperatures. In contrast, only the last two ficins (B, C) were prone to autolysis at cold temperature after long storage period. The rate of degradation of the ficins was significantly increased with the increased storage time. The ficin (A) related to peak (III) had the highest and the lowest surface hydrophobic patches and ratio of autolytic to proteolytic activity, respectively.

The mechanism of pollinator specificity between two sympatric fig varieties: a combination of olfactory signals and contact cues

Pollinator specificity facilitates reproductive isolation among plants, and mechanisms that generate specificity influence species boundaries. Long-range volatile attractants, in combination with morphological co-adaptations, are generally regarded as being responsible for maintaining extreme host specificity among the fig wasps that pollinate fig trees, but increasing evidence for breakdowns in specificity is accumulating. The basis of host specificity was examined among two host-specific Ceratosolen fig wasps that pollinate two sympatric varieties of Ficus semicordata, together with the consequences for the plants when pollinators entered the alternative host variety. The compositions of floral scents from receptive figs of the two varieties and responses of their pollinators to these volatiles were compared. The behaviour of the wasps once on the surface of the figs was also recorded, together with the reproductive success of figs entered by the two Ceratosolen species. The receptive-phase floral scents of the two varieties had different chemical compositions, but only one Ceratosolen species displayed a preference between them in Y-tube trials. Specificity was reinforced at a later stage, once pollinators were walking on the figs, because both species preferred to enter figs of their normal hosts. Both pollinators could enter figs of both varieties and pollinate them, but figs with extra-varietal pollen were more likely to abort and contained fewer seeds. Hybrid seeds germinated at normal rates. Contact cues on the surface of figs have been largely ignored in previous studies of fig wasp host preferences, but together with floral scents they maintain host specificity among the pollinators of sympatric F. semicordata varieties. When pollinators enter atypical hosts, post-zygotic factors reduce but do not prevent the production of hybrid offspring, suggesting there may be gene flow between these varieties.

Changes in pigment profile and surface colour of fig (Ficus carica L.) during drying

SummaryIn this study, anthocyanins in three fresh fig varieties (Ficus carica L.) cultivated in Turkey were characterised and quantified by HPLC/DAD and HPLC/MS. In addition, the carotenoid composition of Sarılop and Sarızeybek, yellow fig varieties, was determined, and then the ripening‐ and drying‐related changes in carotenoids and surface colour of figs were monitored during conventional sun‐drying. Four different anthocyanins, cyanidin‐3‐glucoside, cyanidin‐3,5‐diglucoside, cyanidin‐3‐rutinoside (major anthocyanin) and pelargonidin‐3‐glucoside, were identified in samples. Lutein, zeaxanthin, β‐cryptoxanthin and β‐carotene were carotenoids in yellow fig varieties. Approximately 80% of carotenoid compounds in yellow fig varieties degraded at the end of drying (i.e. seventh day). L (lightness), a (redness and greenness) and b (yellowness and blueness) colour parameters were measured by Hunter Lab system. Great changes in carotenoid composition and surface colour were observed at ripening stage on tree. A significant reduction in L and b values that refers to browning in figs was made in the first 3 days of drying process.

Characterisation of volatiles in dried white varieties figs (Ficus carica L.).

The aromatic profile of volatiles in dried figs varieties Bružetka Bijela and Zimnica were characterised by headspace solid-phase (HS-SPME) procedure with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis (GC-MS). The volatile compounds were distributed by distinct chemical classes, including alcohols, aldehydes, esters, terpenic compounds, and other compounds. The figs were dried in a pilot plant cabinet dryer. Prior to drying process, figs were pre-treated by sulphur dioxide, immersed in solution of citric acid and ascorbic acid, respectively. Several mathematical thin-layer drying models, available in the literature, were fitted to experimental data of figs, implementing non-linear regression analysis techniques. The results showed that pre-treatments of figs decrease significantly the drying time. The best thin-layer drying model in terms of fitting performance was Wang and Singh model. The major volatile compound in dried figs was benzaldehyde. After benzaldehyde, the most abundant aldehyde in dried figs was hexanal. The comparison among dried figs showed the highest abundance of aldehydes, in general, in non-treated (control) dried figs compared to pre-treated samples. Furthermore, ascorbic acid was the most efficient in preserving esters and alcohols in case of Bružetka Bijela, whereas in case of Zimnica, sulphur dioxide was in advance compared to ascorbic acid. Ethyl acetate was the most abundant ester found in dried figs. Among other compounds, 2-butanone,3-hydroxy was the most abundant identified volatiles. Linalool, as the only identified terpen, was in case of both dried fig varieties, preserved by immersion into ascorbic acid. The immersion into citric acid has not been so successful in volatiles conservation.

Growth of Fig Varieties Resistant to Ceratocystis Canker following Infection with Ceratocystis fimbriata

Ceratocystis canker is caused by Ceratocystis fimbriata and is a serious soil disease affecting fig cultures. ‘Masui Dauphine’ is a major fig variety in Japan and is susceptible to this disease. In the present study, the effect of C. fimbriata infection was tested on the growth of 4 fig varieties, ‘Celeste’, ‘Boldido Negra’, ‘Ischia Black’, and ‘Negronne’. Specifically, the potential of these varieties as a disease-resistant rootstock for ‘Masui Dauphine’ was assessed. Fig cuttings of ‘Celeste’ were grown in 350 mL root boxes with sterilized coarse sand. Inoculation with C. fimbriata immediately inhibited root elongation, reduced the root respiration rate from 2 months after inoculation, and caused lesions in the rootlets. The trees of the 4 varieties tested were grown in 3.5-L pots for 5 months. C. fimbriata inoculation caused slight lesions on the underground part of all 4 varieties. Inoculation did not kill any trees and did not reduce root respiration, except with an unreasonable amount of inoculum. No significant reduction in the weights of leaves, shoots or roots was observed except for ‘Celeste’. ‘Masui Dauphine’ trees on the rootstocks of the 4 varieties tested were grown in 22-L containers for 2 years. C. fimbriata inoculation tended to inhibit scion and root growth, and killed a few trees from the 2nd year, except ‘Negronne’. ‘Masui Dauphine’ trees grafted on the rootstocks of the 4 varieties tested, in addition to 2 susceptible varieties, and own-rooted trees, were grown in the field with ceratocystis canker infection. Trees of the 4 varieties tested showed lower mortality and most survived for 5 years. No year-by-year reduction in scion growth was observed for any rootstock variety. Our results demonstrate that the varieties tested are not truly resistant, but are horizontally resistant to ceratocystis canker. We expect these rootstocks to maintain the scion ‘Masui Dauphine’ despite some continuing damage by disease. Of the varieties tested, ‘Negronne’ is the most resistant.

Viruses infecting figs in Egypt

Fig production in Egypt is in continuous decline because many diseases, particularly those caused by viruses, are compromising this crop. RT-PCR assays were conducted on 60 fig samples collected from three Egyptian fig-growing provinces (Ismailia, Qena and North Sinai), from the three main fig varieties (cvs. Sultany, Abode and El-Adasy), to investigate the presence of Fig leaf mottle-associated virus 1 (FLMaV-1), Fig leaf mottle-associated virus 2 (FLMaV-2), Fig mild mottle-associated virus (FMMaV) and Fig mosaic virus (FMV). The overall average incidence of infection reached 90%, with a peak of 95% in Ismailia province. All four viruses were detected in tested samples, with infection rates of 68.3% for FLMaV-1, 35% for FLMaV-2, 28.3% for FMMaV and 46.7% for FMV. This is the first report of the presence of these viruses in Egypt and offers a preliminary insight on the unsatisfactory sanitary status of fig in this country.

A survey and morphological evaluation of fig ( Ficus carica L.) genetic resources from Slovenia

In order to collect all existing phenotypic variation of fig accessions grown in Slovenia and to plan the conservation strategy by establishment of national collection in the northern part of Adriatic coast, the survey of family yards and Slovenian orchards was performed. Two main fig growing regions were included into the field inventory: littoral zone (Slovene Istria) and hinterland zone (Goriška Brda and Vipava Valley). All collected material was morphologically characterized according to internationally accepted descriptors for Ficus carica L., and some new descriptors for leaves and fruits were introduced. For identification the patterns of morphological variation within the fig germplasm principal component analysis (PCA) was used and cluster analysis was performed to decide the ultimate number of clusters by which the accessions could be assessed. Twenty-five Slovenian accessions were compared with fig varieties from a private fig collection in Croatia in order to assess the degree of similarity of figs grown on a broader region of Istria. Altogether 38 accessions were evaluated for 74 phenotypic characters. The results of morphological evaluation confirmed the usefulness of phenotypic markers for fig genetic resources characterization developed by IPGRI and CIHEAM (2003), but some new variables that in our study shoved high discrimination value could be added. Results of morphological evaluation contributed to the selection of accessions for the first national Slovenian fig gene bank. The national gene bank and fig data base will make a fundamental contribution to further genetic improvement of fig crops in Slovenian agriculture.

Assessment of the quality losses of fresh fig fruits during transportation

Turkey is one of the main fig fruits producing countries in the World with respective total annual fig fruit productions of approximately 280 000 tons. The protection of the fig fruit quality in the chain between harvesting and marketing is very important. Vibration often causes damages to perishable fruits. Vibration-damaged fruit losses moisture more rapidly than undamaged fruit, further reducing quality. The fruit injury due to vibration is related to the transportation characteristics of vehicles, packaging boxes and the conditions of the roads. The objective of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of packaging box by different materials to decrease the damages of vibration on the quality of fresh fig fruits during transportation. The experiments were carried out in two stages. In the first stage; the frequency and acceleration values of truck were determined during the real transportation. In the second stage, these values were applied on the simulator (shaker) to examine the effect of vibration on fresh figs packaged with three different box. The results showed that the cardboard packaging box was not proper for transporting of the fresh fig fruits in all road conditions. The mass loss of fresh fig fruits packed with cardboard box were found 2.5 times more than extruded and expanded polystyrene boxes at 16 Hz 2.54 ms-2. Sarilop fig variety was more damaged under the rough road. For long highway road conditions, Bursa Black fig variety was found the most affected fig variety.