Field Of Physical Geography Research Articles

CULTURE, SPACE, AND GEOGRAPHY: THE TRANSFORMATION OF A DISCIPLINE IN TÜRKİYE

The roots of geography as a spatial science in Turkey extend far beyond the Republican era. Geography, due to its examination of the distribution of both natural environment and human activities, is a multidimensional discipline. Especially in the last 20 years, issues such as migration, earthquakes, global warming, and climate change, which have come to the forefront more intensively, once again emphasize the importance of geography. Additionally, within the discipline of geography, it is also important to reflect the culture's perspective on space. The aim of this study is to examine the historical development of Turkish geography in the context of the interaction between culture and space; to reveal the main developmental trends of geography in Turkey within the dominant paradigms; and to identify the new trends in the discipline today. It should be noted that since the beginning of the 20th century, Turkish geography has embarked on an effort of establishment and organization, during which the effects of environmental determinism in geography were observed. Starting from the 1930s, the teaching of foreign geographers at universities in Turkey and their academic contribution in training students have facilitated the emergence of an important tradition, accompanying the modernization of Turkish geography to world standards. The fact that these foreign geographers were generally physical geographers has ensured significant progress in physical geography in Turkish geography until the 1970s. The period from the mid-20th century to the end of the 20th century witnessed a period of rise, especially in the field of physical geography in Turkish geography. From the late 20th century to the present, Turkish Geography has entered into new quests and orientations. In this recent period, the importance of the relationship between space, culture, and geography has further increased. In line with the requirements brought by this increasing importance, Turkish geography is continuing its efforts towards a new definition and direction.

Assessment of biometeorological conditions in Eastern Mediterranean City Adana, Turkey from past to the future.

Human bioclimatic comfort (HBC) is an important subject of climatology in the field of physical geography. Human bioclimatic comfort (HBC) is the feeling of satisfied and comfortable within the ambient atmospheric thermal environment. Earth climate system has been exposed to changes from the beginning, but since 19th century human - induced factors have contributed to these changes. HBC is the combined effect of atmospheric conditions and affected by all the changes in them. Turkey is among the countries in Mediterranean region, expected to develop higher vulnerabilities to the (bio) climate hazards. Therefore, a Mediterranean city in the south of the country, Adana, was chosen as the study area. HBC assessment was made for the past (1961 - 1990), present (1991 - 2022), near (2030 - 2060) and distant future (2070 - 2100) using hourly - data from the official meteorology station between 1961 and 2022, daily data of the climate model scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathway - RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) and Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) index, the Rayman model and Geographic Information Systems in the spatial distribution of HBC conditions. The analysis showed that the prevalence of "cold" and "cool" stresses has decreased while that of "hot" and "very hot" stresses has increased from the past to the present in Adana. It is predicted that present conditions will continue in the near and distant future, all comfort ranges will increase to the following warm range and the ideal period for HBC conditions will be the winter season. In order to reduce the adverse HBC conditions in cities due to climate change by creating climate resilient, sustainable and healthy cities, urban design and planning principles should be followed from a geographical point of view.

Red or Expert: Reforming Geographers in Communist China, 1949–1953

This article investigates the Sovietization of Chinese geographers during the early People’s Republic of China (PRC) using primary sources and published biographies to examine three career paths: red, expert, and red and expert. The red geographers, led by the veteran Communist Sun Jingzhi, who monopolized the field of economic geography, shifted the orientation of geography from the Western model to the model followed in the Soviet Union. The pre-Communist geographers, under the leadership of Harvard-trained Zhu Kezhen, controlled the field of physical geography, relying on their professional training and technical expertise. These two cliques competed for control of the Chinese Geographical Society, its journal, and the Institute of Geography, whereas the Liverpool-trained Hou Renzhi used both redness and expertise to gain prominence in the field of historical geography. This article contends that the reformation of geographers in Communist China continued beyond the political purge of 1949. The twists and turns in career paths derive from the contested nature of the discipline, the changing contours of the science, and connections with institutional structures, all of which illuminate the imbrication of political allegiance, professional expertise, and personal relationships as the geographical tradition persisted in new forms after reformation. In this sense, this article diversifies a history of geography that is too often centered on Anglo-American experiences, and it furthers our understanding of the professionalization of geography as one that has taken a nonlinear course. Key Words: Cold War, Communist China, geographer, history of geography, Sovietization.

A hidden benefit in the COVID-19 pandemic: Rethinking physical geography pedagogy in higher education using a flipped classroom approach

A shift in geographical pedagogy has occurred in the last decade with greater integration of active and blended (hybrid) learning techniques in higher education. A ‘flipped classroom’ approach employs an active classroom and inclusion of pre/post asynchronous course content in replacement of a traditional lecture-based format. This pedagogical research paper investigates the effectiveness of an online flipped classroom approach in the field of physical geography through student evaluation and reflects upon the enforced transition to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. An anonymous survey was distributed to final year physical geography students who experienced both on-campus and online education, to evaluate perceived technological skills, broadband access and module delivery preference. Positive qualitative and quantitative results (66 respondents) showed an appreciation for an active classroom, increased student-staff engagement and the use of multimedia resources (i.e. using more than one medium of communication). Sixty-nine per cent of students in this cohort preferred the online flipped classroom to other online lecture-based formats (synchronous or asynchronous). Additionally, 59% of students chose an on-campus flipped classroom approach in replacement of a traditional transmissive lecture or option to remain online in a post-COVID-19 scenario. Overall, this case study provided valuable insight into student experiences of online learning and illuminates a potential pathway to move away from traditional lecture-based methods in undergraduate physical geography. The dynamic, interactive learning environment created by this alternative approach is recommended to enhance learning, accessibility and improve student-staff interaction, particularly for large class sizes where fieldwork may not be feasible.

Heidi Hikâye Kitabında Yer Alan Coğrafi Kavramların Belirlenmesi

Coğrafya; zaman, mekân, insan gibi unsurları inceleyen ve bu unsurlar arasındaki ilişkilere ilişkin açıklamalar ya da tanımlamalar yapan, aralarındaki ilişkileri neden sonuç bağlamında değerlendiren ve çözümler sunan bir bilim dalıdır. Diğer bütün disiplinlerde olduğu gibi coğrafyanın temelini de kavramlar oluşturmaktadır. Bu bağlamda bireylerin yaşadıkları çevreyi yakından uzağa doğru tanımaları, farklı yaşam şekillerini ve kültürlerini anlamaları coğrafya konularını ve coğrafyaya ilişkin kavramları öğrenmeleri ile mümkündür. Bu çalışmanın amacı Heidi hikâye kitabında geçen coğrafi kavramlar ile bu kavramların kategorilerini belirlemektir. Çalışma nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden doküman incelemesi ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada veri kaynağı olarak Johanna Spyri tarafından yazılan Sevgi Sonkan tarafından Türkçe’ye uyarlanan Heidi hikâye kitabı kullanılmıştır. Veri kaynağı belirlenirken hikâye kitabının ilkokul öğrencilerinin gelişim düzeylerine uygun olması ve Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı tarafından belirlenen 100 Temel Eser içinde olması göz önünde bulundurulmuştur. Çalışma sonucunda Heidi hikâye kitabında Heidi hikâye kitabında 41 coğrafi kavramın yer aldığı görülmektedir. Bu kavramların 29’u fiziki coğrafya, 8’i beşerî ve ekonomik coğrafya alanında ve 4’ü de genel coğrafya alanında yer almaktadır. Heidi hikâye kitabında tespit edilen coğrafi kavramların genel olarak fiziki coğrafya kategorisinde yer alması hikâyenin geçtiği mekânın dağlar ve yaylalar olması ve bu mekânların betimlenmesi ile açıklanabilir. Çalışma sonucunda coğrafya konularının öğretiminde kavram öğretim sürecini destekleyecek nitelikte kitapları seçilerek öğrencilerin kavramları öğrenmeleri desteklenmesi önerilebilir.

A internacionalização da produção das diferentes gerações de pesquisadores CNPq de Geografia Física do Brasil

CNPq productivity scholarship holders can be considered elite in terms of scientific production in Brazil. Therefore, it is expected from them a constant pool of high-quality publications. However, nowadays, high-quality research is increasingly understood as getting published in scientific, international, English-speaking journals with a high impact factor. In parallel, it makes sense to expect that the younger generation of CNPq productivity scholarship holders in ​​Physical Geography will present a more internationalized production than the older ones, as the demand for greater internationalization is still recent. Furthermore, the younger ones were educated in a world inclusive academic, more globalized. Therefore, this paper analyzes the production published in scientific journals of all CNPq productivity scholarship holders in the field of Physical Geography between 2016 and 2020 and compares the differences and similarities of the production of the older generation with that of the former younger one. The results obtained demonstrate that there are no major differences between the production of the two generations, being, in general, the oldest most productive, both in national and international articles. This fact shows that the internationalization of Brazilian scientific production in Physical Geography is not a generational challenge. In parallel, the results obtained evidenced two other facts: that half of the scholarship holders work in the Geomorphology and Pedology sub-area and that the level 1 scholarships are heavily concentrated in the older generation.

Progress and prospects of applied research on physical geography and the living environment in China over the past 70 years (1949–2019)

Physical geography is a basic research subject of natural sciences. Its research object is the natural environment which is closely related to human living and development, and China’s natural environment is complex and diverse. According to national needs and regional development, physical geographers have achieved remarkable achievements in applied basis and applied research, which also has substantially contributed to the planning of national economic growth and social development, the protection of macro ecosystems and resources, and sustainable regional development. This study summarized the practice and application of physical geography in China over the past 70 years in the following fields: regional differences in natural environments and physical regionalization; land use and land cover changes; natural hazards and risk reduction; process and prevention of desertification; upgrading of medium- and low-yield fields in the Huang-Huai-Hai region; engineering construction in permafrost areas; geochemical element anomalies and the prevention and control of endemic diseases; positioning and observation of physical geographical elements; and identification of geospatial differentiation and geographical detectors. Furthermore, we have proposed the future direction of applied research in the field of physical geography.

Assoc. Prof. PhD Nikola Todorov (1955-2018) – A Life Dedicated to Geography

The paper is devoted to Assoc. Prof. PhD Nikola Todorov’s life and professional contributions (1955- 2018) – a prominent Bulgarian geographer, unreservedly dedicated to the science and field researches, who left а rich creative heritage in the field of Physical Geography and Landscape Science. He was the leading author in the development of the second landscape classification system of Bulgaria and in the creation of а landscape map of Bulgaria on a 1:500 000 scale, which is one of his main contributions. An important contribution in his research activity is the developed classification system of anthropogenic changes and landscape disturbances in Bulgaria, which is applicable to the whole country and encompassing the enormous variety of natural-territorial complexes and their changes. He was a scientific mentor for 26 master students and 4 PhD students. Assoc. Prof. Nikola Todorov was a Lecturer who inspired generations of students and many young researchers with his erudition and oratory skills.

145 Years Since the Birth of Professor Zheko Zhekov Radev

The paper is dedicated to the life and scientific activity of prof. Zheko Radev, in commemoration of the 145th anniversary of his birth. The paper focuses on his background and family, his education and professional career. An overview of his renowned and significant scientific publications has been made. Prof. Zheko Radev is the first Bulgarian scientist in the field of physical geography and one of the most distinguished Bulgarian geographers of the XX century. For the generations to come, Zheko Radev left 29 scientific works, some of them topical even a hundred years after they were published. He worked as a university professor for 25 years, during which he laid the foundations of physio geographical disciplines in Bulgaria. His scientific and pedagogical work is worthy of respect and admiration, and should serve as a bright example today and in the future.

Building a Community Adaptive Capacity Model: A Case Study of the Tanjungmas Sub-District in Semarang Municipality

Climate change has pushed communities to make continued adjustments in various aspects of their life in order to adapt and survive. Adaptive capacity is a key concept in understanding this context. Although a number of researches in the discipline of social sciences have examined the meanings and categories of adaptation capacity, the extent to which this knowledge is used in the field of physical geography has not been adequately studied. Most studies on adaptive capacities within this discipline are focused largely on measuring the level or status of adaptation capacity (i.e. high, medium, or low) in a given region. Moreover, these studies have typically interpreted adaptation capacity as rigid and static. Thus, it sets the same index for all adaptive capacity categories. Sometimes it provides a varied index, but it does not give adequate consideration to the actual condition influencing adaptation capacity (i.e. the characteristic of adaptation goals, actors, resources, and etc.). With a case study approach focused in Tanjungmas Sub-district, this study aims to build a conceptual model which connects overall adaptive capacity categories using qualitative methods. We interviewed 18 key persons including sub-district officers, community leaders, women associations, and other local organisation members. This model may help researchers in the area of physical geography to conceptualize adaptation capacities and to establish an index that more accurately reflects local conditions following additional brief field assessments.

Грунтовые воды речных пойм – годовая динамика и математические модели

The doctrine of natural geographical zoning is a traditional and well-developed field of physical geography. Zonal landscapes of the planet are perfectly classified and have clear diagnostic signs. The situation is different with intrazonal landscapes. The criteria for their differentiation are not so obvious. Despite the objective differences in the landscapes of floodplains of forest and steppe natural zones, the principles of their differentiation and classification have not yet been eveloped. The most important factor in the functioning of floodplain landscapes is the seasonal dynamics of groundwater. The annual series of observations allows to graphically display this dynamic in the form of combined transverse profiles of river floodplains, reflecting the relief, the level of surface waters and the changing position of the upper boundary of groundwater. Two-dimensional figures on the profiles are subjected to mathematical processing and allow to develop mathematical models of annual groundwater dynamics. Such models can serve as a basis for classification of intrazonal landscapes of river floodplains. The idea of the study is to try to give an objective picture of natural processes in the floodplains of rivers of the arid zone, based on accurate quantitative characteristics comparable to each other. For mathematical processing, we selected field experimental plots, allowing to obtain a representative profile of the relief and the position of the groundwater mirror during the year. Two-year observations of groundwater have provided a comprehensive picture of their dynamics and relationships to the surface water regime. The results of this work were reflected graphically in the form of profiles. At the next stage, with the help of the Verner Graphical Analysis program, adequate mathematical models describing the process were selected. Verification of models showed a high degree of their reliability. The next stage of the work should be the comparative characteristics of floodplains of rivers of different natural zones and regions, based on the proposed approach. In combination with other criteria (humus content in soils, species composition of tree and shrub vegetation), this will make it possible to differentiate the landscapes of river floodplains and develop schemes for zoning intrazonal landscapes.

Application of a Knowledge-in-Pieces perspective to students' explanations of water springs: A complex phenomenon pertaining to the field of physical geography

Application of a Knowledge-in-Pieces perspective to students' explanations of water springs: A complex phenomenon pertaining to the field of physical geography

Model Validation Criteria for System Identification in Time Domain

The fit ratio is one of the most commonly used criteria to evaluate a result of system identification in the time domain. This criterion is given by the root mean squared error (RMSE) divided by the standard deviation of the measured signal. However, the fit ratio has some problems. For example, it can take negative values because it is not normalized, and it is easy to obtain a better value for a low-amplitude signal than for a high-amplitude signal. In this paper, we introduce some normalized criteria from the field of physical geography and considercriteria that resolve these problems. We evaluated these criteria through two case studies. We found that the correlation coefficient was effective to evaluate the phase, and a criterion obtained from the triangle inequality was effective for evaluating the gain and phase.

AS INFLUÊNCIAS DA FILOSOFIA NATURAL E DA NATURPHILOSOPHIE NA CONSTITUIÇÃO DO DARWINISMO: ELEMENTOS PARA UMA FILOSOFIA DA GEOGRAFIA FÍSICA MODERNA.

This paper argues that the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin suffered from the strong influence of Schelling and Hegel naturphilosophie , representing a positive move in conceptions of teleology in nature. Strongly influenced by the works of Alexander von Humboldt, the Werner and the research in the field of paleontology, the theory of evolution, conceived the transformation of bodies and their speciation from spatial and temporal determinants. Ideologically influenced by Lyell, believed that if the vera causa , Darwin relegated the matrix space and focused its arguments on the changes in time, basically change, as a determinant of development. The impacts of the theory of evolution affect both the field of physical geography, as the human geography, strongly influencing the geographical position of the research methodology, but drawing attention to the complexity of the relationship between space and time are in constant change. Key-words: Darwinism. Naturphilosophie. Theory of Evolution. Space. Physical geography.

The Global Pollen Database in biogeographical and palaeoclimatic studies

The Global Pollen Database is an example of a successful data synthesis effort that has uses for biogeographical and climate change studies. Results are of interest in many fields of physical geography. Continental-scale maps of past conditions have been used in data-model comparison studies. Time series, developed by averaging quantitative reconstructions from many sites, have indicated that millennial-scale climate variability has affected the vegetation of Europe and North America during the Holocene. Major transitions in the vegetation of Europe and North America occurred at the same time, suggesting the overriding climate effect on the vegetation of both continents. The database can also be used to test biogeographical hypotheses, as several examples illustrate, without the need for collecting new data. Hundreds of studies over the past 50 years show that pollen analysis is more precise than frequently acknowledged: vegetation responds rapidly to climate variations, changes in vegetation are spatially coherent and the taxonomic resolution available in the database is greater than frequently acknowledged. The availability of a public, freely available database enables different analyses to be performed on the same data, thereby ensuring that results are not dependent on methodology.

Methods to evaluate the impacts of physio-geographical pattern on spatio-temporal disparity of regional development

With the rapid economic development during the last 30 years in China, more and more disparities have emerged among different regions. It has been one of the hot topics in the fields of physical geography and economic geography, and also has been the task for Chinese government to handle. Nevertheless, to quantitatively assess the impacts of physio-geographical patterns (PGP) on the regional development disparity has been ignored for a long time. In this paper, a quantitative method was adopted to assess the marginal effects of the PGP on spatio-temporal disparity using the partial determination coefficients. The paper described the construction of the evaluation model step by step following its key scientific thinking. Total GDP, per capita GDP, primary industrial output value and secondary industrial output value were employed in this study as the indicators to reflect the impacts of PGP on the regional development disparity. Based on the evaluation methods built by researchers, this study firstly analyzed the temporal impacts of the PGP on spatio-temporal disparity of the regional development in China during the past 50 years, and then explained the spatial differences at each development stage. The results show that the spatio-temporal disparity in China is highly related to the PGP, and that the marginal contribution rate could be employed as an effective way to quantitatively assess the impact of the PGP on spatio-temporal disparity of the regional development.

A review of two strongly contrasting geomorphological systems within the context of scale

AbstractScale issues are often addressed in contemporary geo‐ecological studies and form one of the major challenges in the fields of physical geography, hydrology and ecology. In this paper the application of hierarchy theory and response units is proposed as an approach towards scale‐transcending environmental studies on degradation and geomorphological development.Goals of the research were to establish which processes are important at what spatio‐temporal scale, how hydro‐geomorphological response is influenced by biological processes and whether hierarchy theory and the response unit approach can be used as an up‐scaling methodology.Results from two climatologically and geomorphological different regions are discussed, one dominated by water shortage (SE Spain) and the other by water surplus (Luxembourg). In both cases detailed process research was carried out at scales ranging from the micro‐plot to the catchment. Process research was concentrated on understanding and quantifying sediment and water transfer through the geo‐ecosystems studied.Outcomes showed that in both cases the role of biological processes was important in the hydrological and degradation response of both areas. This was not only true for the finest scale levels but also had its impact on the emerging properties and response at the hillslope and catchment level.Connectivity of runoff‐generating and runoff‐absorbing areas was important on all scale levels. Connectivity is dominated by both the rainfall magnitude–frequency–duration characteristics and physically and biologically controlled thresholds, which range from initial soil moisture contents, vegetation patterns or soil biological activity, to the presence of water harvesting structures.The complex interrelationships of the processes involved showed that linear up‐scaling from fine to broad scale is impossible, as many thresholds and non‐linear processes are involved at specific scales. The identified response units are used to integrate these complex relationships in a relatively manageable way, and may provide a useful framework for up‐scaling, and for understanding catchment hydro‐geomorphological response and development. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Contemporary Philosophical Perspectives on Physical Geography with Emphasis on Geomorphology

PHYSICAL geographers traditionally have avoided introspective philosophical analysis of their scholarly activities. This situation contrasts sharply with the fierce philosophical debate among human geographers during the past fifteen years (Smith 1979; Walford and Gregory 1989; Johnston 1991). The primary purpose of this article is to persuade physical geographers of the virtue of engaging in philosophical introspection; however, it is important to recognize that physical geography is as diverse as human geography. This essay focuses specifically on the potential contribution of philosophical analysis to geomorphology, but it also informs other sub fields of physical geography, because the issues discussed are central to all branches of the physical sciences. The reason for the neglect of philosophical issues by geomorphologists is unclear. Perhaps it reflects a basic sense of philosophical security. Although the issue of whether geomorphology should be regarded as scientific or historical has been somewhat controversial, much of this discussion has occurred within geology, not geography (Simpson 1963; Watson 1966, 1969; Kitts 1977; Baker 1988; Baker and Twidale 1991). Contemporary geographical geomorphologists appear to be fairly secure in their role as physical scientists, a view that is reinforced by continued emphasis on the dichotomy between human and physical geography. Thus they may be confident that geomorphology is firmly rooted in established philosophical foundations of physics and chemistry. In other words, as physical scientists their philosophical underpinnings are incontrovertible, a perspective strengthened by the limited exposure that many geomorphologists have had to the philosophy of science. Geomorphologists generally receive little, if any, formal training in philosophical topics at the undergraduate or graduate level. Moreover, in many cases what little training they do receive often comes from human geographers, who simply inform the physical geographers that they are empiricists and then proceed to survey the myriad philosophical perspectives in human geography. As a result most geographical geomorphologists have perfunctorily embraced either logical positivism (Harvey 1969) or critical rationalism (Haines-Young and Petch 1986). These philosophical perspectives generally are erroneously portrayed as equivalent, except for a minor difference in method: logical positivists attempt to verify hypotheses, but critical rationalists try to falsify them (Johnston 1991, 72). One purpose of this essay is to illustrate to human and physical geographers alike that the philosophy of the physical sciences, including geomorphology, is not as secure or uncontroversial as it may seem. Even if the philosophical foundation of the physical sciences is controversial, this situation may not trouble geomorphologists for two reasons. First, they may presume that any debate about philosophical issues concerning the physical sciences should focus on physics or chemistry, not geomorphology, which is derivative from fundamental sciences. This view is misguided because geomorphology as a science deals with distinctive types of complex, unconstrained natural systems that differ from those investigated in laboratory sciences and in many cases uses methods that vary from those employed in laboratory investigations. It is therefore uncertain that philosophical arguments developed for physics and chemistry directly inform geomorphology. Second, some geomorphologists probably perceive philosophy as an esoteric, unnecessary endeavor that has little relevance for practicing scientists. Although occasional forays into philosophy are necessary for well-rounded scientists, to delve too deeply into such issues often is regarded with suspicion, if not outright contempt, and is sanctioned only if the primary purpose is to seek methodological guidance rather than philosophical insight. This disparaging attitude reflects a basic misunderstanding of the relationship between science and the philosophy of science. …

地理教育における測定の機能と意義

Measurement is an effective means of grasping physical quantity and phenomena numerically and objectively, that is, a way to attain scientific understanding. In school education, the obtaining of scientificway of thinking is much more emphasized than the objectifying of physical quantity and phenomena by measurement.In geographical education, too, measurement is considered to be important in theory but mostly treated only as a means. Moreover it is not effectively used, though which is one of the essential activity in geography, in field works.The purpose of this paper is to analyze the ways in which measurement is treated in every subject in school education, and to study the functional importance of geographical measurement in school education. The results are as follows;1) Most of the measurement study in school education is dealt with in arithmetic, mathmatics and science. Unexpectedlly, little of it is adopted in social studies, for the field of physical geography is slighted and there is little understanding of the importance of geographical studies in social studies.2) There is a strong tendancy in teaching geography that it is practiced only by map-reading with field works neglected. So it is difficult to fill up the gap between the abstract world and the real one.3) The major role of measurement in geographical education is not to theorize results by measurement. We should find out significance of measurement in field works and grasping physical quantity and phenomena as they are.4) By measurement perceived quantity can be altered into cognitive quantity. As we measure in the field, we can get both perceived and cognitive quantities, we can compare both of these. By repeating such measurement, our “indivisual scale” comes to be gained. If it is once gained to be functioned, we will be able to get nearly exact numbers by eye-measurement or by other bodily senses. The preschool child who has not have indivisual-scale yet has acquired vague quantity concept of “proto-indivisual-scale” through his daily life.5) Some quantities are, either because they are too large or too small, unable to be perceived by our sense organs, but it is possible to register those quantities somehow numerically and turn them into cognitive quantities, which in turn help us assume somewhat perceived quantities through our indivisual-scale.

SYMPOSIUM: QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY-THEIR HARD- AND SOFT-WARES

It is well-known that quantitative methods have made a remarkable progress in many disciplines and have brought the diversification of their study objects and the expansion of their applications. These tendencies have clearly appeared in geography. In this field it has been vigorously done to develop various kinds of techniques and appliances for obtaining geographic numerical data, to apply some of quantitative methods to them and to present the findings by these efforts in a form of model. The study along this line was made an accelerative progress by the quantitative revolution in the beginning of 1960's, so that it has greatly contributed toward the development of geography. On the other hand, this progress has met with some problems involving the limitation of quantitative techniques or methods. In addition, it has offered many important and basic themes to the discussion of geographical nature, for the techniques or methods twine closely with the geographical methodology. These themes are idiographic versus nomothetic approaches, quantitative nature as opposed to qualitative one of geographic phenomena, individual versus aggregative approaches, the distinction between correlation and causation, and the possibility for building geographic theory. Although none of these themes have been given adequate answers, it is obvious that they have set a new guideline to both fields of physical and human geography. The quantitative works which were called Chorometry appeared in the geographical studies in Japan in 1930's. Some of these studies have continuously been done in the field of physical geography, wheares in the field of human geography they were ceased due to the insufficient research for data and the method of analysis. In the recent quantitative studies, however, this shortcoming is fairly but not completely swept off. The aim of this symposium is to discuss the three questions described below. (1) What kind of efficiency and limitation the quantitative methods have in terms of geographic studies? (2) How should the study concerning methods to solve various geographical problems be located in the field of geography? (3) How could the study mentioned above be related with the nature of geography? The members of the symposium consisted of twenty-four reporters and commentators, four chairmen, two organizers and a great number of participants. Although there had been some discussions concerning with three questions through the session, there were much left to be discussed. Twelve papers presented were in the following: (1) K. Kashiwaya pointed out that model experiment was of much efficient in the case of being difficult to obtain the data of landform development, and he showed the model of gully evolution, which was characterized by considering two parameters, such as the inertial force of water and the resistant force of soil. (2) M. Pukuda reviewed some applications of harmonic analysis to the landform studies and offered the results obtained in analyzing the spectral power densities of landforms in Hokkaido. He pointed out the relations of estimated spectrum to the interval of sample dots in topographic maps. (3) M. Hirano and S. Yokota explained some possibilities of numerical analysis for geomorphological phenomena. They indicated the necessity to publish topographic digital maps and to establish a geomorphological data bank. (4) I. Tsuchiya's concern was directed to suggest the advantages and weaknesses of measuring the surface temperature by the infrared radiation thermometer as a technique of remote sensing. He explained this direction by showing an example of measurements of snow surface temperature in the eastern slope of Mt. Hoken in Nagano Prefecture. (5) K. Yamabe first showed a hydraulic model to evaluate the fluidity of sea water on the basis of the residence time of fresh water.