Subject. This article discusses the demographic development analysis of countries of the world. Objectives. The study aims to identify demographic trends in various States, including the Russian Federation. Methods. For the study, I used the methods of induction, deduction, statistical and multivariate analyses, and classification. Results. The article identifies a variation in the population growth rate in different countries and a pronounced deformation of the gender structure in Russia. It also carries out an integrated assessment of demographic development, and considers the practice of implementing family policy mechanisms in countries with demographic problems. Conclusions. Many countries around the world have faced negative demographic trends, which are mainly characteristic of developed countries. These problems require a comprehensive approach to their solution. The principles of fertility policy in different countries can be adapted to the Russian reality to achieve the strategic goals of the socioeconomic development of the Russian Federation.

Persistent efforts are imperative to improve neonatal health outcomes, especially considering China's evolving fertility policies and persistent regional health disparities. The Small Vulnerable Newborn Consortium has proposed a framework combining preterm birth (<37 weeks of gestation), small for gestational age (SGA) by the INTERGROWTH-21st standard, and low birthweight (LBW; <2500 g) under the category of small vulnerable newborns (SVNs); however, updated, reliable data on SVNs from mainland China are scarce. To improve children's health in China and identify a strategic entry point to help narrow regional disparities, we estimated the prevalence of SVNs and four SVN subtypes at the national and provincial levels. We used data from China's National Maternal Near Miss Surveillance System (NMNMSS) for pregnant women discharged from Jan 1, 2012, to Dec 31, 2022, at 441 hospitals located in 30 mainland provinces (excluding Tibet) to estimate the prevalence of SVNs and the four mutually exclusive SVN types (preterm SGA; preterm non-SGA; term [≥37 weeks' gestation] SGA; and term non-SGA but LBW [LBW only]) at the national and provincial levels. Provincial data were aggregated by applying age-specific weights determined by comparing the maternal age-specific livebirth distributions in a given province and year between the NMNMSS and the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 datasets. Bayesian multilevel mixed-effects linear regression was used to estimate the median prevalence ratios (PRs) and their corresponding 95% uncertainty intervals (UIs). The average annual percent change (AAPC) with 95% CI was calculated by assuming a Poisson distribution with the year as the predictor variable. We estimated the annual PRs of SVNs and the four SVN subtypes using data from 14 221 823 livebirths recorded by the NMNMSS between 2012 and 2022. In 2022, an estimated 13·2 per 100 liveborn newborns (95% UI 12·5 to 14·0) in mainland China were identified as SVNs, which predominantly comprised infants who were born preterm non-SGA, followed by term SGA, preterm SGA, and LBW only. The national PR of SVNs remained stable overall from 2012 to 2022 (AAPC -0·4%, 95% CI -0·9 to 0·04), although an initial decrease was followed by an increase after 2018. The PR of term SGA livebirths decreased from 7·1 per 100 livebirths (95% UI 6·6 to 7·5) in 2012 to 5·2 per 100 livebirths (95% UI 4·9 to 5·6) in 2022 (AAPC -2·9%, 95% CI -3·6 to -2·2), whereas the PRs of preterm non-SGA livebirths and LBW-only livebirths increased over the same period (preterm non-SGA 6·0 per 100 livebirths [95% UI 5·7 to 6·3] in 2012 vs 7·0 per 100 livebirths [95% UI 6·7 to 7·4] in 2022, AAPC 1·8% [95% CI 1·5 to 2·1]; LBW only 0·1 per 100 livebirths [95% UI 0·1 to 0·1] in 2012 vs 0·2 per 100 livebirths [95% UI 0·2 to 0·2] in 2022, AAPC 5·4% [95% CI 4·7 to 6·1]). In 2022, the highest PRs of SVN, preterm SGA, and term SGA livebirths were observed in Qinghai, whereas Liaoning had the highest PR of preterm non-SGA livebirths and Chongqing had the highest PR of LBW-only livebirths. Between 2012 and 2022, the PR of SVNs increased in Heilongjiang, Beijing, Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu, Shanghai, and Xinjiang, with Heilongjiang showing the most rapid increase (AAPC 2·0%, 95% CI 1·6-2·5). The PR of preterm SGA livebirths increased the most in Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Hebei, Qinghai, and Shanghai, whereas the prevalence of preterm non-SGA livebirths increased the most in Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, Ningxia, Xinjiang, and Jiangsu. Although the prevalence of SVNs in mainland China has stabilised overall, a reversal occurred after 2018, with western provinces showing substantially higher levels than central and eastern provinces. Reducing the burden of SVN in China requires particular attention to preterm-onset SVN. Continued attention on SVNs can help narrow regional disparities in child health, and thereby advance the target of Sustainable Development Goal 3.2 to end preventable deaths among neonates and children under 5 years old by 2030. National Key Research and Development Program of China.

In the context of China's relaxed fertility policies and persistently low fertility rate, this study examines how parental gender preferences - son preference, daughter preference, balanced preference, and no preference - differentially associate with the ideals to have a second child versus a third child. Using nationally representative mixed cross-sectional data from 2017 to 2021 (N=15,668), we conduct the first systematic comparison across these two parities. The research revealed that (1) notable child heterogeneity exists in gender preferences: a balanced preference is significantly positively associated with the inclination to have a second child but negatively associated with the desire for a third child, whereas gender-specific preference shows the opposite pattern; (2) the gender composition of existing children plays a crucial moderating role, with son preference markedly increasing the willingness to have a third child in families with two daughters compared with other configurations; and (3) traditional preference habituation (son preference) is more pronounced among rural households, male respondents, and youths from low socioeconomic status (SES). This study addresses key gaps in the literature, which has largely focused on a single parity or exclusively on female respondents, by examining both second- and third-child fertility ideals among both men and women. This reveals the complexity of the dynamics of gender preferences in the fertility decisions of Chinese families.

Limited studies have conducted a comprehensive investigation on the impact of China's birth policy change on the mental health among women of childbearing age. This study aimed to explore the potential impact of China's Universal two-child policy on depressive symptoms among women of childbearing age, based on national-representative, longitudinal survey data. Data we employed in this study were derived from the China Family Panel Study (CFPS) for the waves of 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018 and 2020. We included 7481 currently married females (17079 for pooled sample) aged 20-40years. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Kessler 6 Rating Scale (K6) and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). All scores were standardized for analysis. We employ the difference-in-difference model to investigate the association between the implementation of the Universal Two-child Policy (UTP) and women's depressive symptoms. Women in the exposed group, after implementing UTP, had a standardized score of depressive symptoms 0.10 higher (95% CI: 0.03-0.16, p=0.007) than during the pre-intervention period after controlling for multiple covariates. They also faced a higher risk of having moderate or severe depressive symptoms (OR=1.45, 95% CI: 1.12-1.87, p=0.004). The stratified analysis revealed that the negative impact of UTP on mental health was pronounced among women with advanced age, low education, medium family income, only male offspring before UTP, and no new birth after UTP. We observed that the implementation of the UTP was associated with increased depressive symptoms among married women of childbearing age in China, with significant heterogeneity across different sociodemographic groups. Greater attention should be paid to the complex psychological conditions of women of childbearing age when adjusting fertility policies, which is crucial to prevent women from suffering poor mental health and to advance high-quality development in population health.

IntroductionIn the context of China's rapid economic development and profound social changes, adjusting fertility policies has become a key national strategy. However, the long-term effectiveness of fertility incentives such as the three-child policy remains uncertain due to the lack of comprehensive economic and social support measures.MethodsThis study innovatively utilizes Large Language Models (LLMs) to assist social media analysis, including intelligent noise removal and weighted sentiment analysis. By combining empirical data and a social media perspective, we developed the Dynamic Monitoring of Public Opinion on Fertility Intentions (DMPOFI). The aim of this paper is to analyze the factors influencing fertility intentions among Chinese women, providing theoretical support for policy formulation. The study analyzes 45,810 Weibo posts, all in Chinese, focusing on the public's views and sentiment toward fertility intentions. Through methods such as weighted sentiment analysis, LDA topic modeling, and TF-IDF, we gain insights into the changing public attitudes in recent years.ResultsFrom the perspective of fertility intentions, the period of 2015–2016 was the most positive, while from 2017 to 2019, public attitudes toward fertility gradually became more rational and neutral. From 2020 to 2023, fertility intentions significantly declined, with neutral and negative emotions gradually dominating. The core factors influencing fertility intentions identified in this study include policy changes, social perceptions, economic pressures, work-life balance, cultural shifts, fluctuations in birth rates, and discussions on family planning.DiscussionBased on these findings, we propose a series of policy recommendations, urging the government to provide more flexible maternity leave policies, workplace support, and childcare services.

Burden of maternal disorders in China, 1990-2021: a comparative analysis with global data based on GBD 2021.

Uterine rupture, a severe complication endangering pregnant women and fetuses, typically occurs in late pregnancy or during delivery. Complete uterine ruptures are exceedingly rare in women without uterine scars. However, the adjustment of China's fertility policy has contributed to the escalating incidence of uterine rupture. Herein, we report a case of a non-scarred uterine rupture in the middle stages of pregnancy that was successfully managed with surgical intervention, after proving to be a diagnostic challenge.

Fertility policy relaxation and household energy consumption: evidence from China’s universal two-child policy

Focusing on demographic changes and policy challenges, this study compares low fertility policies in Korea, Japan, and China. Despite childbirth incentives, parental leave, free childcare, and housing support, Korea’s fertility rate remains the lowest in the OECD due to structural barriers such as a rigid labor market, high education and housing costs, and patriarchal norms. Although Japan maintains a rate around 1.2, aging, labor shortages, long working hours, and gender inequality within corporate culture limit progress. Despite the “three-child policy,” China’s fertility continues to decline as urbanization, economic insecurity, and high childrearing costs discourage births. Across all three countries, financial incentives alone have proven insufficient; therefore, comprehensive structural reforms-including labor market change, gender equality, and reduced housing and education burdensare essential for sustainable fertility improvement.

This study was conducted during the implementation period of China’s recent fertility policies, a context in which the management of cesarean section (CS) rates faces evolving challenges. This study evaluated temporal trends in CS practices using the modified Robson Classification System (RCS) at a coastal Chinese secondary maternal and child health(MCH) hospital. We analyzed 11,755 deliveries (2019–2023) using electronic medical records categorized via the modified RCS. Statistical analyses included trend tests and regression models. Annual deliveries declined by 24.5% from 2019 to 2023, while maternal age increased significantly (p < 0.001). The overall CS rate was 41.4% (4,865/11,755). Most CSs were associated with nulliparous term singleton vertex pregnancies (R1; 40.7% of CSs) and women with a previous CS (R3; 35.9% of CSs), together constituting 76.6% of all CSs. The CS rate in R1 showed a significant upward trend (p < 0.001). This descriptive study of a secondary MCH hospital identifies notable obstetric practice and demographic trends against the backdrop of evolving fertility policies, with a high overall cesarean section rate driven predominantly by two patient groups. Annual delivery volumes see a substantial cumulative decline over the five-year study period, while maternal age rises significantly across the cohort. The overall cesarean section rate remains high, with the majority of cesarean procedures occurring in nulliparous women with term singleton vertex pregnancies and women with a prior cesarean section, who together account for the vast majority of all cesarean deliveries. The cesarean section rate for nulliparous women with term singleton vertex pregnancies also exhibits a marked upward trend during the study period. These trends indicate the need for targeted clinical interventions for key patient groups, including standardized labor management for nulliparous women and the promotion of vaginal birth after cesarean. Notably, this analysis coincides with national demographic and fertility policy shifts, but no causal relationship between the policies and the observed trends is established.

In recent years, the postponement of the age at first marriage has emerged as a prominent social trend, reflecting shifting marital attitudes among individuals of marriageable age. This shift is closely linked to the educational attainment of parents. Using data from the 2021 China General Social Survey (CGSS), this study employs empirical methods to investigate the influence of parental education on the age at their offspring’s first marriage. The findings reveal that higher parental educational attainment is associated with a later age at first marriage for their children, with gender role perceptions, fertility intentions, and social networks identified as significant mediators in this process. Furthermore, the effect of parental education on the age at first marriage is more pronounced in urban areas than in rural areas. Against the backdrop of rising parental education levels with societal progress, this study underscores the importance of promoting urban-rural integration, enhancing social networks for the youth, refining fertility policies, and advocating for gender equality to rationalize the timing of first marriage.

ABSTRACT This study examines the effects of relaxed birth control policies on grandparents’ labour supply from both theoretical and empirical perspectives. We begin by constructing a simple theoretical framework, which reveals that changes in grandparents’ labour supply following such policy relaxation depend on the relative strength of two opposing mechanisms: intergenerational financial transfers and intergenerational time transfers. Using six waves (2010–2020) of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) and a difference-in-differences (DID) design exploiting the 2016 Universal Two-Child (UTC) policy, we find that easing fertility restrictions significantly increases grandparents’ labour supply. Heterogeneity analyses along intra-household responsibilities and external environmental factors provide empirical support for two theoretical mechanisms. Collectively, these findings suggest that the increase in grandparents’ labour supply is primarily driven by intergenerational financial transfer motives. Importantly, such behavioural adjustment occurs without compromising grandparents’ subjective welfare. This study suggests the potential complementarity between fertility policies and retirement schemes and underscores the importance of accounting for intergenerational linkages in policy design.

Declining soil fertility remains a major constraint for farmers in the semi-arid Sahelian regions. This study assessed the effects of increasing rates of compost combined with zaï pits on the productivity of the cowpea variety “Komecallé” (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp) and on soil fertility. Soil samples and agronomic parameters were collected using a completely randomized block design with four treatments replicated four times in Pabré, Burkina Faso: T0 = Zaï only; T1 = Zaï + 1 t ha⁻¹ of compost; T2 = Zaï + 2 t ha⁻¹; and T3 = Zaï + 3 t ha⁻¹. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s HSD test at the 5% significance level were applied. Results revealed that mineral nitrogen increased by 18,9%, 23,9%, and 22,1%; available phosphorus by 21,3%, 44,7%, and 23,6%; and available potassium by 21,7%, 18,2%, and 22,6% under T3, T2, and T1 respectively. Haulm yields increased significantly by 65% under T3, while grain yields increased by 82% under T2. The treatment T2 (2 t ha⁻¹ compost) proved to be the most effective option for enhancing both productivity and soil fertility. The valorization of local substrates could contribute in soil fertility and cowpea production policies in semi-arid regions and reduce fertilizers cost for farmers.

This study investigates whether the introduction of India’s Point-of-sale (PoS) based subsidy system (commonly referred to as fertilizer DBT) influenced nitrogen use intensity. It is important to note that this system does not involve direct cash transfers to farmers. Instead, subsidy release is linked to PoS-authenticated retail transactions and paid to manufacturers. Employing an interrupted time series analysis framework with annual national and state-level data, we estimate both immediate and long-term effects of this reforms while controlling for key structural determinants of fertilizer demand including cropping intensity, irrigation coverage, institutional agricultural credit, urea subsidy allocation, rainfall variability, and adjusting for prior fertilizer policy reforms. At the national level, the reform did not produce a statistically significant change in nitrogen use intensity, suggesting that enhanced subsidy delivery and transaction monitoring alone are insufficient to modify aggregate fertilizer application behavior. State-level analysis, however, reveals considerable heterogeneity, with short-term adjustments and selective responses emerging in a limited number of states, underscoring the context-dependent nature of delivery-oriented reforms in shaping fertilizer use outcomes. Qualitative evidence from farmer and retailer interactions indicates that the reform has strengthened transparency, product availability, and accountability in fertilizer distribution, thereby reinforcing the institutional infrastructure of subsidy administration. Taken together, these findings offer policy-relevant insights into the potential and limitations of PoS-based subsidy delivery system as a reform mechanism and highlight the need to combine governance improvements with complementary agronomic and incentive-based interventions to achieve meaningful and sustained gains in nitrogen use efficiency.

After over three decades of the one-child policy (OCP), China introduced the partial two-child policy (PTCP) in 2013 and the universal two-child policy (UTCP) in 2015. However, their potential impacts on maternal and neonatal health remain unclear. This study aimed to examine temporal changes in maternal characteristics and neonatal outcomes across different policy periods. We used data from a population-based pregnancy registry in Ximen, China. Maternal characteristics and neonatal outcomes were compared across the three periods: OCP (2012-2014), PTCP (2014-2016), and UTCP (2016-2021). Joinpoint regression and interrupted time series (ITS) model were applied to evaluate temporal trends and quantify the effect of policy implementation on trends over time. Among 491895 pregnancies, the proportion of advanced maternal age and multiparity rose significantly after policy shifts. Maternal obesity, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and gestational diabetes showed steady increases. Monthly births peaked in 2016, then declined below the pre-PTCP baseline level by 2020. Compared to OCP, the prevalence of birth defects (BDs) increased by 62% during PTCP and 204% during UTCP. Preterm birth and low Apgar scores also rose. ITS indicated a significant post-UTCP acceleration in BDs (β3 = 2.57), largely driven by circulatory system BDs, with maternal age acting as a partial mediator. China's TCP implementation was associated with notable shifts in maternal risk profiles and increased adverse neonatal outcomes, underscoring the need for continuous maternal-child health monitoring during fertility policy transitions.

South Korea is facing a significant low-fertility rate issue, with varying success in fertility policy outcomes between urban and rural areas. The traditional fixed-area pilot model struggles to adapt to non-stationary fluctuations in fertility rates, leading to high trial-and-error costs. This study addresses the optimization of urban-rural fertility policies by proposing an enhanced Sliding Window Upper Confidence Bound (SW-UCB) algorithm that combines a sliding window with a forgetting factor. It treats Seoul and South Jeolla Province as arms of a Multi-Armed Bandit model, defining the increase in fertility rate per unit subsidy as the reward and conducting a simulated 60-month pilot. The improved algorithm demonstrates a 22.3% reduction in cumulative regret compared to the traditional UCB algorithm and a 19.4% reduction compared to Thompson Sampling, effectively accommodating fluctuations in fertility rates and aiding the precise adjustment of policies.

The purpose of this study is to develop an analytical framework for fertility decision-making centered on intergenerational conflict, addressing a limitation in existing research that prioritizes macro-level policy instruments while underexamining intra-family interaction dynamics. Drawing primarily on qualitative analysis and supplemented with official data, this study examines how fertility policies are negotiated within households. The article argues that, in the context of the limited effectiveness of the three-child policy, divergences between younger and older generations in fertility attitudes, assessments of childrearing costs, and perceptions of the policy hinder families from achieving a stable consensus through intra-household negotiation. The study demonstrates that intergenerational conflict not only weakens the effectiveness of policy implementation but also erodes public trust in government and reinforces existing patterns of gender inequality. Therefore, mitigating intergenerational conflict in third-child fertility decisions requires an institutionalized and coordinated policy framework that systematically reduces the costs of childbearing. By expanding public service provision and advancing gender equality-oriented policies to share reproductive risks, China’s fertility policy can shift from an incentive-driven approach toward one centered on institutional guarantees, thereby enhancing its social acceptability and long-term sustainability.

This paper aims to explore the mechanisms through which population aging impacts China's economic development, analyzing its effects on labor supply, human capital, enterprise vitality, and international trade, while proposing corresponding strategies. Drawing on data from the Communiqués on National Economic and Social Development spanning 2009-2023, combined with a literature review and trend analysis, the study systematically examines the relationship between population aging and economic growth. The findings indicate that China's population aging process is accelerating, with the proportion of the working-age population continuously declining, exerting significant pressure on economic growth; the rising share of the elderly population leads to reduced labor supply, diminished entrepreneurial entry intentions, and weakened export competitiveness, thereby constraining economic development. To address this, the paper recommends measures such as optimizing fertility policies, delaying retirement age, increasing investments in human capital, and improving the pension security system to mitigate the adverse effects of population aging and promote high-quality economic development.

This article systematically reviews China's current fertility policy and organises it according to content characteristics and implementation methods to clarify the ever-changing research focus. In particular, this article focusses on the major changes in the orientation of China's fertility policy in recent years, from a restrictive family development model to a supportive model. Research shows that these policy adjustments can have a significant effect on countering the trend of contemporary population ageing, increasing the future labour supply, and improving the demographic structure. In order to further stimulate the increase in the fertility rate, the government has launched a set of adaptive measures to improve family life through maternity and paternity leave, childcare allowances, family tax incentives and expanding the availability of childcare. These efforts symbolise a critical shift towards increasing family support programs. However, population experience shows that raising fertility is not only a matter of short-term results of policies, but also indicates the need for precise and continuous long-term policy commitments. The policy shift will boost China's fertility rate, but ultimately it will be necessary to improve reproductive health services and expand social security protection and family support systems. The policy adjustment reflects the strategic response to the demographic transformation of one of the world's most populous countries, aiming to establish a sustainable demographic development path and change the balance between the quality of the population and the specific quantitative population requirements for the future population by addressing the immediate and long-term needs of these new citizens.

IntroductionIt’s estimated that about 121 million unintended pregnancies occur worldwide every year, which has significant impacts on individuals, families, and society. It’s important to explore the factors influencing the childbirth decision in these women, thereby informing midwifery practice.MethodsA qualitative study was performed on women with unintended pregnancies via focus group discussion. The thematic analysis was guided by the theory of planned behavior. Data were analyzed using a combination of deductive and inductive content analysis.ResultsThe analysis revealed three main themes and several subthemes: attitudes toward behavior (changes in fertility concepts, impact of fertility policies, conflicts in women’s roles), subjective norms (influence from friends, family, societal attitudes towards fertility), and perceived behavioral control (health-related pregnancy factors, pressures of child-rearing responsibilities, concerns about family, workplace support).DiscussionWomen are eager to make informed decisions regarding unintended pregnancies. A collaborative effort from society, healthcare providers, and families is essential to support these women in making appropriate decisions. Healthcare providers hold a pivotal role in caring for pregnant women. Additional studies are required to assess and integrate strategies within healthcare practice.Trial RegistrationThe study received the approval from the Ethics Committee at Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital (No. 2024–14) on 12 April 2024.