Fertility Choices Research Articles

The attitudes of transgender and gender-diverse adolescents and their parents regarding fertility, parenthood, and fertility preservation before the start of puberty suppression or gender-affirming hormone therapy.

The attitudes of transgender and gender-diverse adolescents and their parents regarding fertility, parenthood, and fertility preservation before the start of puberty suppression or gender-affirming hormone therapy.

Effects of diffusion and education on women’s fertility in India

This paper investigates independent and joint effects of education and diffusion of information on fertility choices of women in India. Two dimensions of diffusion are social learning and social influence. Social learning implies women’s exposure to mass media, membership of social groups, social network, and the presence of other married women in the household. Social influence entails gender roles in the household, women’s financial autonomy, and power relationships among spouses in the household. Negative binomial regression models are run on the India Human Development Survey Panel data (IHDS 2005 and IHDS-II 2011–12) to test this study’s hypotheses. Results show that education has a negative and independent effect on women’s fertility. Greater exposure to various forms of mass media and access to social networks that measure social learning diffusion variables lead to lower fertility. Sharing a household with other married women has a positive influence on women’s fertility. Social influence channels of diffusion, particularly when power relations in household are skewed against women, leads to higher fertility. Several measures of diffusion also interact with women’s education in influencing their fertility. Policy implications are discussed.

How do soil moisture and simulated rainfall drive ammonia emissions after applying inhibited urea fertilizers? - An incubation study.

Ammonia (NH3) emissions in Germany originate mainly from agricultural activities, leading to numerous negative impacts on ecosystems, human health and environment. To reduce NH3 emissions, the addition of urease inhibitors (UI) to synthetic urea fertilizer is proposed and implemented in practical agriculture. Nevertheless, there are still uncertainties about the reduction potential of UIs under varying environmental conditions. In this incubation study, we examined the influence of soil water content (low: 10%, medium: 17.5%, high: 25% w/w) and rainfall (1, 5, 10mm) on NH3 emissions after the application of urea fertilizer. Ammonia was trapped by sulfuric acid in an incubation setup for three weeks after fertilizer application. Daily cumulative emissions were fitted to a logistic growth function. Cumulative emissions of the fertilized treatments, ranged between 1.6 and 24.9% of the applied N and were highest at the medium soil water content. Low soil moisture at application hindered granule dissolution, resulting in emissions of 8.4% across all fertilizers. High soil water content led to low emissions (7.2%) due to a faster diffusion of urea into the soil. The results indicate, that UI always reduced NH3 emissions with a mean reduction of 73.3% over all soil moisture and rain treatments. Under conditions favoring high NH3 emissions, the emission of a double inhibited urea fertilizer (UI and nitrification inhibitor) was higher when compared to fertilizer only with UI, but still lower than from untreated urea. Rainfall linearly decreased cumulative emissions, independent of fertilizer choice by 4.7% per mm of rain.

Optimal sequential fertility choices under discriminatory preferences

Optimal sequential fertility choices under discriminatory preferences

Comparison of Maternal-Fetal Attachment and Fertility Motivation in Pregnant Women With and Without Experience of Violence: Descriptive and Analytic Study.

Domestic violence during pregnancy harms the mother-child bond and can affect fertility decisions. The study aims to Comparison of Maternal-Fetal Attachment and Fertility Motivation in Pregnant Women with and without Experience of Violence. This descriptive and analytical study was conducted was conducted in 2024. A total of 292 pregnant women were selected through stratified random cluster sampling from primary healthcare of zanjan, Iran, and divided in non-violent (147) and violent (145) groups. Data collection tools were Demographic, the Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS2), the mother's attachment to Cranley's fetus, and Miller's fertility preferences questionnaire. To analyze the data by SPSS 17, we used Chi-square test, Pearson's test, correlation coefficient, and logistic regression, with a significance level set at p-value < 0.05. Most of the women who experienced violence had a second pregnancy or more (116 out of 145). Unwanted pregnancy was almost twice as common in women who had experienced violence as in women who had not (16.1% vs 8.2%). Women who experienced violence were significantly more likely to have fewer children (χ2 = 4.693, p = 0.33). As a result of the Binary logistics regression analyses, it was determined that the variables of young age of husband (OR: 1.325; CI:1.379-3.352), law education level of the husbands (OR:1.313; CI:1.090-2.093), gravida ≥ 5 (OR:5.750; CI:1.018-32.464), low desire to have children (OR:1.882; CI: 1.035-3.420), and low Fetal Attachment (OR: 5.423; CI: 1.965-14.966) were statistically significant with violent women. Domestic violence during pregnancy affects the bond between mother and fetus, as well as fertility choices. Reducing domestic violence can enhance maternal-fetal attachment and improve fertility rates.

Family planning and preimplantation testing: family experiences in congenital adrenal hyperplasia.

Pre-implantation testing (PGT) is often suggested by healthcare professionals (HCP) to parents of children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) considering subsequent children. Despite this, some families choose to conceive naturally without genetic testing and intervention. The aims of this study were to explore fertility choices of couples with a child with CAH and the decision making process and perceptions behind these choices, and to explore the families' lived experiences with CAH and the couples' subsequent fertility journey. A better healthcare professional understanding of these experiences may subsequently help guide clinicians to better manage and support families of children with CAH and other autosomal recessive conditions. All parents of current children of a tertiary service in 2020 with 21-hydroxylase deficient CAH who made an active decision regarding family planning after diagnosis of their index child were invited to participate in a semi-structured interview. Thematic analysis was performed using an inductive, semantic approach. Thirty families (34 children) were identified. Fourteen considered subsequent children and had directed genetic counselling. Eight decided to have additional children of whom seven agreed to participate. Thematic analysis identified six key domains. Psychological impact surrounding the CAH diagnosis was long-lasting, causing symptoms of trauma including depression and anxiety, and influencing a couple's choice to pursue PGT to avoid having another affected child. The perception of the index child having a mild phenotype, and fear of a more severe phenotype, often supported this decision. Conversely, lived experience of CAH and low day-to-day impact, along with a negative experience of PGT, with a greater than anticipated financial, physical, and emotional toll, led some families to subsequently consider natural conception. The role of the healthcare professional (HCP) was important in the CAH and family planning journeys. A perceived poor understanding of CAH, overstating its potential seriousness, contributed to distress. Parents reported feeling pressured to undergo PGT. Peer-support had a universally positive impact on family experience. This study highlights the complex and dynamic nature of fertility decision-making, and the importance of HCP empathy and open-mindedness. Education of HCP and encouraging peer support may improve the CAH and fertility journey for families.

How investment in children shape fertility choices of families: Evidence from Pakistan.

Fertility patterns are transitioning globally in that couples are choosing to have fewer children as they become more affluent, and parents are investing more time and resources in the lives of their children than they can receive back. This change is more established in developed countries and is now being recognized in developing countries. We explored this phenomenon and its implications for family planning in Pakistan, hypothesizing a quantity-quality transition underway. We examine the correlation between increased investment in children's education and the use of family planning services among Pakistani families. We conducted a secondary analysis of publicly available data from the Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) survey and its complementary Household Integrated Economic surveys (HIES) for 2018-19 accessed through the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS) website. The study included married women of reproductive age (MWRA) aged between 15 to 49 years of age. The current use of different contraceptive methods by MWRA was the outcome variable, whereas the education expenditure per child, and mother-level, child-level, and household-level factors, as control variables. The study employed multinomial logistic regression to assess the correlation between contraceptive use and education expenditure per child while controlling for other variables using STATA (version 17.0, STATA Corporation, College Station, Texas, USA). Data from 24,024 MWRA and 56,128 children were analyzed. 7,584 (30%) households have no children while 1,658 (10%) don't send any child to school. All households that send children to school incur at least some education related expense. The rise in education spending outpaces rates of rise in household incomes, suggesting that education is procured as a luxury good. However, the rate of spending on education falls off from the third child onwards. After controlling for confounders, the odds of using contraceptives increases as education expenditure rise, from 1.172 [CI, 1.029,1.336] when they spend under PKR 2000 (USD 13) to 1.495 [CI, 1.327,1.683] if they spend more than PKR 13,000 (USD 84) annually on the education of a child, compared to no education expenditure at all. There is one exception in the case of households in the wealthiest quintiles located in rural areas, where FP use reduces. Our findings support the hypothesis of a quantity-quality transition in Pakistan, where increased wealth and educational investment in children are linked to reduced fertility and higher contraceptive use households. The use of FP increases from the poor to the richest wealth quintiles nationally and correlates with spending on the education of an older child. However, an important exception was observed among the wealthiest rural households, where family planning use decreases despite higher income levels. This suggests that affluent women, particularly in rural areas, may opt for larger families due to limited labor market opportunities or cultural preferences. We describe a major social change that reflects evolving values in families.

Intrahousehold Decision Making and Fertility Choices in Rural Senegal and Uganda

Feminist economic approaches have transformed mainstream economic analysis to better account for intrahousehold decision making. To quantify decision making, studies resort to self-reported survey-based measures, derived from questions directed to household members, or proxy-variable methods. This study uses a choice experiment, a stated preference method, implemented in rural Senegal and Uganda and specifically distinguishes between individual and household choices to analyze spouses’ preferences on fertility and child raising and calculate a decision-making coefficient. Findings show individual fertility preferences of men and women cannot substitute for household-level choices, and intrahousehold decision making concerning fertility and child raising is region specific. While in Uganda household fertility choices reflect a balance between the spouses’ fertility preferences, in Senegal these choices seem more dominated by the husband’s preference. This study demonstrates the importance of considering the adequate decision-making unit when designing family planning and child-centered programs and of using a region-specific approach. HIGHLIGHTS Analyzing spousal fertility and child-raising choices provides an alternative to traditional proxies for intrahousehold decision making. Choice experimental data and methods enables the calculation of a decision-making coefficient. Individual fertility preferences cannot substitute for household-level choices. Considering the adequate gender and decision-making unit is crucial in designing family planning programs.

The Multifaceted Impact of Education on Fertility: Unpacking the “BASIC” Effects in China

AbstractResearch is increasingly showing that the impact of education on fertility can result in various and sometimes conflicting outcomes. Using data from the China General Social Survey, this study investigates this issue by exploring five channels (the five “BASIC” effects – base, ambition, spouse, income, and concept effects) through which education might influence different fertility behaviors. Using the number of Confucian temples in a region as an instrumental variable for education and employing the two‐stage least squares estimation, the results indicate that after taking into account the BASIC effects, the impact of education on actual fertility behavior – both the number of children and the decision to have children – becomes insignificant. However, the negative influence of education on fertility intentions persists. This suggests that, although an increase in the level of education may reduce people's desire to have children, the actual fertility behavior can be influenced more by factors such as individual work status (the base effect) and personal expectations (the ambition effect). These findings provide new insights to assist China to optimize its population policy further, helping policymakers to understand better how education affects fertility choices and to formulate more precise population development strategies.

P-461 Fertility knowledge, childbearing intentions and attitudes regarding parenthood among men and women about to get married in Iran

Abstract Study question What is the level of fertility knowledge, childbearing intentions, and attitudes toward parenthood among men and women who are about to get married in Iran? Summary answer The study revealed insufficient fertility knowledge, a strong desire for childbearing, and a positive attitude toward parenthood, along with significant gender disparities in fertility preferences. What is known already In recent years, declining birth rates in both developed and developing countries have raised concerns. The downward trend in fertility rates and delayed childbearing present significant global challenges related to aging populations, requiring an examination of contributing factors. Advances in reproductive technologies, evolving gender roles, and personal and professional aspirations have fundamentally reshaped attitudes towards fertility, influencing couples’ intentions to have children. A comprehensive understanding of individuals’ fertility knowledge and preferences regarding childbearing and parenting is essential to comprehend fertility behaviors and develop targeted interventions, family support systems, and policies aligned with their preferences. Study design, size, duration From June 2021 to March 2022, a web-based cross-sectional survey was conducted, involving 2938 soon-to-be-married individuals (1533 women and 1405 men). Participants/materials, setting, methods Women aged 18 to 35 years and men aged 18 to 45 years, with no history of prior marriages, who were referred to public health centers for the purpose of obtaining a marriage license, were included through stratified sampling in Iran’s five major cities (Tehran, Tabriz, Mashhad, Ahvaz, and Shiraz). The Cardiff Fertility Knowledge Scale (CFKS) and the Swedish Fertility Awareness Questionnaire were used for data collection. Main results and the role of chance The mean age among men and women was 28.86±5.44 and 24.61±5.99 years, respectively. The average CFKS score was 48.19% (0-100%) with no significant difference between males and females (48.08% vs 48.3%, p = 0.694). The study found that 86.6% of participants expressed an intention to have children in the future, significantly more prevalent among men compared to women (88.9% vs. 84.4%, p &amp;lt; 0.001). The desired family size was two children for 56.1% of participants, while 19.1% preferred one child. The intention of women to have the first and last child between the ages of 35 and 39 was 12.7% and 31%, respectively. Participants highly valued parenthood (7.76±2.90), and men valued parenthood significantly more compared to women (7.88 ±2.84 vs 7.64±2.96, p = 0.027). Participants viewed In Vitro Fertilization (IVF), adoption, and a child-free lifestyle as potential responses to infertility with respective ratings of 5.73±3.78, 4.04±3.63, and 3.99±3.63, respectively (range 0-10). No significant gender differences were observed (all p &amp;gt; 0.05). The study highlighted that maintaining a stable relationship was perceived as the most important factor influencing the decision to have children (4.54±1.05). Moreover, participants believed the most transformative aspects of parenthood were the giving and receiving of love (2.56±0.82). Limitations, reasons for caution Interpreting the results necessitates addressing limitations such as volunteer bias, urban area sampling, cross-sectional design limitations for causal relationships, and the potential influence of Covid-19 on fertility preferences. Therefore, caution is needed when generalizing findings to other populations. Wider implications of the findings The study’s findings have significant implications for policies promoting childbearing. To enhance fertility knowledge, promote informed reproductive decision-making, and facilitate consensus among couples regarding their fertility choices, it is recommended that midwives assume a crucial role in providing related services. These measures should be smoothly integrated into existing frameworks. Trial registration number Not applicable

Reclaiming Power or Reinforcing Inequities: Exploring Egg Freezing Debates on Social Media

ABSTRACT In China, unmarried women are prohibited from egg freezing despite high demand and declining fertility rates. Within such a context, this article aims to examine public attitudes toward reproduction and egg-freezing on social media, with particular attention paid to how these discussions reflect the multi-level determinants influencing decision-making regarding egg-freezing practices. Within the context of Chinese gender ideology, we conducted a critical discourse analysis of 1,437 Weibo posts discussing egg-freezing. Our analysis identified four significant themes: reconstructing romantic relationships and family structures, conspiracy theories and distrust surrounding assisted reproduction, exposing and challenging reproductive policies within a patriarchal framework, and interconnections and stratification among women. Accentuated by the egg-freezing discourse, we argue that current Chinese women’s bodily autonomy is entangled with traditional norms and state control, underscoring the intricate interplay between individual choice and societal dynamics, as well as the ideological contradictions at the intersection of Western technological influence and Chinese societal structures. Furthermore, we illuminate the challenging landscape faced by online feminist movements within such a complex context. Our findings set the stage for shaping future initiatives focused on advancing reproductive justice and empowering fertility choices among Chinese women.

Ideals and realities: Chinese singleton daughters negotiating family size preferences and migrant motherhood in Spain

ABSTRACT Chinese young women’s fertility choices have attracted growing interest in the last years, however, the effects of women’s singleton status and transnational motherhood experience on their fertility behaviours remain understudied. Using 12 qualitative interviews with Chinese migrant mothers in Spain, we firstly examine how women’s family size preferences are constructed by their singleton status associated with changing gender norms and strong normative expectations of future family caregiving obligations; secondly, we explore the challenges faced by participants towards realizing their fertility expectations in transnational spaces from a gendered perspective. We find that although singleton status can contribute to women’s larger ideal family size, their gendered roles as only-daughters and migrant mothers increase care responsibilities, which negatively influence their childbearing decisions. By situating singleton daughters’ experiences within a broader institutional and sociocultural context, our study offers a unique opportunity to examine how changing gender norms, care, and responsibility structure fertility norms of one generation at the micro level.

“Unless I could be like the typical dad”: Exploring parenthood through the perspective of the voluntarily childfree

Fertility rates have significantly declined in advanced, industrialized nations. The factors contributing to these swift demographic changes are diverse, but it is evident that women are opting for fewer children, delaying childbirth, and a growing number of individuals are choosing not to have children. Most studies on voluntary childlessness depict it as a growing phenomenon in Western societies and predict that the voluntary childless population will continue to increase. To explore this trend, examining individuals’ and couples’ fertility choices within the context of evolving parenting culture proves insightful. This study explores the concept of modern parenthood by interviewing 12 Icelandic voluntarily childfree individuals and five couples by examining the decision-making process associated with choosing not to have a child and exploring its connection to prevailing parenting norms. The Icelandic context provides an interesting research backdrop, given its emphasis on gender equality, diverse family structures, and policies that support both parents’ participation in work and childcare. The results indicate that women perceive the role of motherhood as mentally and emotionally draining, complex, and requiring significant personal sacrifices. This suggests that narratives of intensive mothering can directly influence and inform decisions on fertility in the Icelandic context where becoming a parent is seen as a choice, which can even stand in the way of personal fulfilment and autonomy. While the interviewees acknowledge the unequal responsibilities and duties of mothers and fathers, they do not question the individualism and intensity that characterize modern parenthood.

Microarthropods improve oat nutritional quality and mediate fertilizer effects on soil biological activity

AbstractSoil biological processes are important drivers of crop productivity in agroecosystems. Soil microarthropods play key roles in nutrient cycling and plant nutrient acquisition, though little is known about how these effects manifest in crop production under different organic fertilizer amendments. We explored the interactive effects of microarthropods and fertilizers on crop productivity in two greenhouse experiments: experiment one involved a single Collembola species, and experiment two involved diverse microarthropod communities. Oats were grown as a model crop in both experiments under one of three initial fauna abundance levels (none, low, and high). In both experiments, four organic fertilization treatments were compared: alfalfa green manure, Kreher's Poultry Litter Compost, Chilean nitrate, and a nonamended control. Oat growth and development were evaluated weekly. During each experiment, 48 pots were selected randomly for destructive harvest at two separate times to mimic forage and grain harvest stages. At each harvest, multiple soil metrics (microarthropods, microbial biomass, microbial enzymes, and soil carbon and nitrogen) and plant metrics (biomass, reproduction, and tissue carbon and nitrogen content) were evaluated. Our findings indicated that microarthropods, both single species and diverse communities, stimulated nitrogen cycling and enhanced crop nutrient status. As microarthropod abundance and diversity increased, microarthropods exerted more effects on soil microbial activity. The effects of the microarthropods enhance the breakdown of fertilizers, ultimately making fertilizer choice less important for soil processes and plant nutrient availability. Our findings suggest that microarthropods drove oat production yields primarily through their effects on soil biological processes.

Macroeconomic analysis of the child benefit: Fertility, demographic structure, and welfare

Macroeconomic analysis of the child benefit: Fertility, demographic structure, and welfare

How did the European Marriage Pattern persist? Social versus familial inheritance: England and Quebec, 1650–1850

The European Marriage Pattern (EMP), in place in NW Europe for perhaps 500 years, substantially limited fertility. But how could such limitation persist when some individuals who deviated from the EMP norm had more children? If their children inherited their deviant behaviors, their descendants would quickly become the majority of later generations. This puzzle has two possible solutions. The first is that all those that deviated actually had lower net fertility over multiple generations. We show, however, no fertility penalty to future generations from higher initial fertility. Instead the EMP survived because even though the EMP persisted at the social level, children did not inherit their parents’ individual fertility choices. In the paper we show evidence consistent with lateral, as opposed to vertical, transmission of EMP fertility behaviors.

The air pollution-fertility relationship: evidence from China

ABSTRACT This study investigates the link between air pollution and fertility. We developed a theoretical model of fertility choice in which air pollution affects both reproductive capacity and fertility intention. The model predicts that air pollution decreases fertility and that the negative effect of air pollution on the fertility rate varies across regions with different fertility restrictions and intentions. We use panel data from Chinese cities to empirically investigate the impact of air pollution on fertility and address the potential endogeneity problem by employing three identification strategies: fixed effects, lagged dependent variables, and instrumental variables. The point estimate implies that a one-standard-deviation increase in the 5-year average PM2.5 exposure (18 µg/m3) leads to a 0.417-standard-deviation decrease in the birth rate (1.19‰). Moreover, the negative effect of air pollution on fertility is weaker when the one-child policy is relaxed and is stronger in regions with higher education levels and higher housing prices, suggesting that air pollution decreases fertility through both the biological channel and the intention channel.

The Role of Social Media in Shaping Fertility Intentions Among Young Women in East Asian Cultures

This study investigates the influence of social media on the fertility intentions of young women in East Asian societies. It focuses on how various aspects of social media, including exposure to images of children, sharing of personal parenting experiences, and discussions around early childhood education, shape women’s thoughts and decisions about having children. The paper identifies a significant impact of social media in either encouraging or deterring young women from pursuing motherhood, highlighting the platform's role in conveying both positive and negative aspects of parenting.A key finding of the research is the dual nature of social media: while it offers a sense of community and support, it also imposes pressures and sets unrealistic standards, especially regarding motherhood and family life. The study further explores the growing influence of individualistic and feminist viewpoints within social media narratives, examining how they interact with cultural norms to affect fertility choices among young women. This research offers valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and healthcare providers, suggesting the need for more supportive and realistic approaches to family planning and maternal health in the context of a digitally connected world.

Becoming a mother in neoliberal academia: Subjectivation and self‐identity among early career researchers

AbstractThis paper investigates how becoming a mother—and navigating such a complicated life transition—while pursuing an academic career impacts the way female researchers perceive themselves as acting subjects. By analyzing in‐depth virtual interviews with Italian female early career researchers, this work explores the relationship between fertility decisions, motherhood hardships, self‐identity, and career‐related experiences in the interviewees' biographical trajectories. Despite their consideration of childbearing as a mental and practical obstacle to scientific production, many of the interviewees ascribe positive career outcomes to the arrival of their first child. The reflexivity set in motion by the interview process allows us to observe the collected interviews as double‐layered narratives. The postponement of fertility choices and the presence of work‐family conflict tend to be described as ordinary facets of a common career pattern, intrinsic to the female academic working experience. Meanwhile, the positive impacts of motherhood on self‐identity and work‐related skills are recounted on a more individual level, framed as a sort of paradox, a personal journey of self‐discovery or—to some extent ‐ a heroic performance.

Higher education and the income-fertility nexus

AbstractFertility and income are negatively related at the aggregate level. However, evidence from recent periods suggests that increasing income leads to higher fertility at the individual level. In this paper, I provide a simple theory that resolves the apparent contradiction. I consider the education and fertility choices of individuals with different learning abilities. Acquiring higher education requires an investment of time and income. As a result, people with higher education have fewer children but, controlling for the level of education, increasing income leads to higher fertility. Rising income and skill premiums motivate more people to pursue higher education, resulting in a negative income-fertility association at the aggregate level. I investigate the explanatory power of the theory in a model calibrated for the US during 1950–2010.