ABSTRACT Using data from the Chinese General Social Survey, this study examines the relationship between parental education and adult offspring height in China across birth cohorts from 1930 to 1999. Adult height increased by 6–7 centimetres over this period. While the positive association between fathers’ schooling and adult children’s height remained stable across cohorts, the association with mothers’ schooling strengthened markedly and exhibited large gender differences. The maternal education-height gradient increased more rapidly for sons than for daughters, particularly after the 1970s, coinciding with economic reforms and rising female labour force participation. By the late twentieth century, mothers’ schooling became a stronger predictor of adult offspring height than fathers’ schooling, reflecting greater maternal income, autonomy, and influence over child health investments. In contrast to developed countries, where parental education has tended to reduce height disparities, maternal education in China may have widened height inequalities. Sons appear to have benefited disproportionately from maternal education following economic reforms, suggesting intrahousehold gender bias. A decomposition analysis indicates that changes in the parental education-height association, rather than increases in schooling levels, account for a substantial share of the secular height increase. These findings highlight the gendered nature of human capital formation in China.

ABSTRACT Policy debates on sustainable development often presume that expanding women's participation in the labor market strengthens social, economic, and environmental outcomes. Yet whether female labor‐force participation (FLFP) is systematically aligned with sustainable development—and under what structural conditions—remains empirically unclear. This study provides a comparative assessment of the gender–sustainability relationship across two major global blocs: the E7 emerging economies and the G7 advanced economies, using annual data from 1990 to 2022. Employing a multidimensional Sustainable Development Index (SDI), fixed‐effects panel models, interaction specifications, and robustness checks based on adjusted net savings and dynamic lag structures, the analysis adopts an associational framework. The results reveal marked heterogeneity across development stages. In the E7 economies, FLFP is positively associated with SDI in cross‐country comparisons, but shows no robust within‐country association once fixed effects are introduced, and is negatively related to long‐term sustainability measured by adjusted net savings. Interaction results further indicate that periods of intensified green transition and rapid digital expansion coincide with a weaker alignment between female labor participation and sustainability outcomes. In contrast, in the G7 economies, within‐country increases in FLFP are not associated with improvements in sustainability, and this relationship is not systematically enhanced by governance effectiveness, green‐jobs exposure, or digitalization. Component‐level analyses show that aggregate SDI movements mask offsetting income, social, and ecological dynamics. Overall, the findings suggest that female labor participation does not automatically translate into sustainability gains; its relevance depends on whether structural conditions enable women's economic participation to be productivity‐enhancing and environmentally inclusive.

South Africa’s shift to renewable energy has been characterised by significant structural changes, primarily through the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP), which achieved considerable capacity by 2016. Although this green transition aligns with environmental and economic goals, gender inequities persist in labour market outcomes, particularly in technical and leadership positions. This study examines the short- and long-term impacts of renewable energy investments and important socioeconomic elements on female labour force participation (FLFP) in South Africa. Applying a bounds testing approach based on a semi-annual autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model, this analysis utilises data from 2003 to 2022. It includes factors such as renewable energy investments, the share of green jobs, GDP per capita, and access to modern energy services. The results indicate a statistically significant long-term equilibrium relationship. Increased renewable energy investments align with increases in FLFP, and the growth of green jobs further boosts women’s workforce participation. GDP per capita additionally has a positive impact, highlighting the macroeconomic advantages of inclusive growth. On the contrary, access to existing energy services shows a statistically insignificant negative relationship with FLFP, suggesting that merely expanding infrastructure may not effectively tackle gendered labour disparities. This study adds to the field of energy economics by providing a gender-segregated empirical evaluation and by suggesting policy actions to foster a more inclusive and fair energy transition in South Africa.

The paper investigates the correlation of consumer price index with labour force participation and economic growth in India between 2017 to 2024. The analysis involves using secondary data that is sourced from the Ministry of Labour and Employment, the World Bank, the Ministry of Education and Macro trends to explore the effect of the rural and urban labour force participation rates between males and females, their enrolment in secondary schooling, total and planned spending on education and the yearly increase in the GDP on consumer price movements. Since the consumer price index data is non-negative and skewed and the time-series sample used is rather small, Poisson regression is the model used as the major econometric tool. The findings show that the result is high heterogeneity of labour market segments. Male labour force participation in the rural areas has a positive and significant relationship with the consumer price index and a negative significant relationship with female labour force participation. The variables of urban labour force participation are statistically insignificant and there are weaker or less predictable relationships with the price movements. The increase in the gross domestic product is observed to significantly affect the consumer price index negatively, which implies a higher rate of economic growth could alleviate the inflation pressure. The results reveal the significance of the demographic and sectoral differences in the study of the dynamics of inflation and offer policy-related details on labour participation and growth in the determination of price stability.

ABSTRACT Gender norms that dictate the societal behaviour of different genders hinder the labour force participation of women. The Indian state of Kerala presents a striking juxtaposition: despite being lauded for its advancements in gender and human development, the state continues to struggle with low female labour force participation, with only about one-third of the females participating in the labour force in Kerala. Against this context, the study investigates the relationship between gender norms and labour force participation in Kerala, as the state mirrors trends observed at the national level. The study uses primary data obtained through a questionnaire survey from 783 educated young individuals aged between 18 and 45 in Kerala. The primary data reveal that nearly 40% of the respondents hold a conservative view on gender norms concerning gender stereotypes and employment. The empirical estimates from multinomial logistic regression reveal that the labour force participation of individuals is associated with gender norms. The study emphasises the need for targeted policies aimed at expanding affordable childcare services and encouraging shared caregiving responsibilities within families to promote the labour force participation of women.

The interaction between gender inequality in education, female labor force participation, male labor force participation, and economic growth in Nigeria: a quantile–on–quantile analysis

ABSTRACT Globally rising female labour force participation represents one of the most noteworthy economic developments of the last century. Despite this rise, little is known about the individual and broader economic costs tied to women's experiences of problematic menstrual symptoms such as period pain (dysmenorrhea) and heavy menstrual bleeding. This study quantifies the economic burden of menstrual symptoms on Australian working women using a human capital approach. A cross‐sectional online survey was conducted among women in Australia who had been employed for at least 3 months. Lost productivity associated with menstrual symptoms is estimated at $4882 Int (AUD $7176) per person annually, with an estimated annual economic burden of $9.527 billion Int ($14.005 billion AUD) in Australia based on a 90% prevalence rate for one or more menstrual symptoms. Presenteeism was the predominant cost driver, accounting for 46% of total productivity loss. Over the counter and prescribed analgesic use were significantly correlated with greater pain and productivity impairment, despite not reducing productivity impacts. Pain severity demonstrated a strong positive correlation with absenteeism and presenteeism ( r = 0.97). Women aged 35–44 reported significantly higher lost productivity than their counterparts. These findings highlight the substantial economic rationale for government and workplace interventions supporting menstrual symptom management.

This research investigates the systemic marketing challenges encountered by women entrepreneurs within the unique socio-economic landscape of Kerala, India. Despite the state’s acclaimed "Kerala Model of Development," characterized by high female literacy and superior health indicators, there remains a persistent disparity in female labour force participation and the scaling of women-led micro-enterprises. This study identifies a critical "Market Marginalization" where women, though proficient in production, face significant hurdles in market penetration, branding, and digital transition. The inquiry adopts a Mixed-Methods Explanatory Sequential Design, integrating the Resource-Based View (RBV) and Social Capital Theory to analyse how "Marketing Capability" serves as a gendered resource. Utilizing a stratified random sample of 450 registered women entrepreneurs across North, Central, and South Kerala, the research examines the multi-dimensional impact of the 4Ps (Product, Price, Place, and Promotion) alongside modern digital variables. Preliminary observations suggest that while institutional frameworks like the Kudumbashree Mission have successfully facilitated entry-level entrepreneurship, these units often remain trapped in a "Middleman Trap" and suffer from "Marketing Paralysis" due to information asymmetry and socio-cultural mobility restrictions. The study further explores "Digital Marketing Adaptability" as a potential moderator for business growth, arguing that current policy interventions must shift from traditional subsidy-based models toward a "Marketing-Led Development" (MLD) approach. The final output of this research is the formulation of a "Marketing Resilience Model," designed to provide a strategic roadmap for women-led enterprises to navigate the hyper-competitive, algorithm-driven marketplace of Industry 4.0. The findings hold significant implications for policymakers, academic researchers, and developmental agencies aiming to bridge the gap between entrepreneurial aspiration and sustainable commercial success in the post-pandemic digital economy.

Gender stereotypes, defined as widely shared beliefs about the typical attributes of women and men, have far-reaching consequences for both stereotyped groups. This preregistered research examined cross-cultural variation in gender stereotypes based on public opinion poll data from 1995 (22 nations with 22,000 respondents) and 2023 (40 nations with 4,800 respondents). Results revealed that men were perceived as more agentic than women and women as more communal than men in all studied nations at both time points. Yet, substantial cross-cultural variation existed in the strength of these stereotypes whereby the communion stereotype in particular related to the distribution of women and men into social roles. The female advantage in communion was stronger the larger women's share in the labor force and the greater the occupational sex segregation, both reflecting women's employment primarily in communal domains. The male advantage in agency likely reflects that women's considerable inroads into leader roles put them in versions of the role entailing lesser status and power and therefore conveying lesser agency. For competence, most respondents believed that women and men are equally competent in 17 of the 23 nations surveyed in 1995 and in all 40 nations surveyed in 2023. These beliefs in competence equality were stronger in nations with greater female educational attainment and labor force participation (in 2023 but not in 1995). By identifying cross-cultural patterns and socioeconomic indicators associated with variation in gender stereotyping, this research advances understanding of how the locations of women and men in nations' social structures inform gender stereotypes.

Gender inequality remains a persistent barrier to development in many parts of Asia, yet the domestic foundations of this inequality—particularly within family systems—are often neglected in global measurement tools. This study introduces the Patriarchy Index (PI), a new metric constructed from census microdata to capture gendered power hierarchies in families across 22 Asian (including Egypt, treated here as part of the classical Asian patriarchal belt) countries and 652 subnational administrative units. Of particular interest to development practitioners and scholars, the PI offers a scalable, low-cost tool for subnational diagnostics, especially where standard measures of gender equality are missing or fail to reflect private-sphere constraints on women’s autonomy. Our study addresses whether domestic arrangements—such as patterns of co-residence, marriage timing, and age-based authority—can reliably capture institutionalized patriarchy, and what regional variation these patterns reveal. Using harmonized IPUMS-International census microdata and eleven theoretically grounded indicators, we construct a multidimensional composite index empirically validated through convergence with existing gender measures, divergence from unrelated metrics, and correlation with gendered development outcomes. Our study finds that family-based patriarchy is spatially clustered and highly variable at the subnational level. It further shows that higher PI values are significantly associated with reduced relative female labor force participation, even after controlling for structural variables such as gross national income and urbanization. These results underscore the PI’s value as a complementary measure: it captures dimensions of gender inequality that remain invisible to public-facing or outcome-based indicators and helps bridge the gap between domestic constraints and broader patterns of disenfranchisement. In contexts where legal reform and female empowerment are pursued without addressing household-level structures, the PI offers a diagnostic that speaks directly to the architecture of family systems—illuminating where and how deeper constraints on gender equality endure.

Legal reforms promoting gender equality have expanded across Sub-Saharan Africa over the past two decades, yet their effects on women’s labor market participation remain underexamined. This study assesses how gender-responsive legal reforms shape women’s labor supply by integrating the World Bank’s Women, Business and the Law Index, ILOSTAT employment indicators, and DHS survey data for SSA countries from 2000 to 2023. Using a country-year panel difference-in-differences approach, the analysis exploits the staggered adoption of reforms related to workplace protections, mobility, entrepreneurship, pay equity, and parental leave. The findings indicate that countries implementing clusters of such reforms experience significant increases in female labor force participation, wage employment, and non-farm self-employment. Effects are strongest where reform adoption coincides with stronger institutions, enforcement capacity, and broader social protection systems. The results align with existing evidence on gender norms and labor regulation while providing new empirical insights. Overall, legal reforms matter, but their impact depends on coordinated regulatory and policy support.

Household bread and bakery product waste constitutes a growing issue in Algeria, with significant economic, environmental, and socio-cultural implications. This research is situated within the framework of sustainable food systems and responds to recent transformations in domestic food practices, driven by increased female labor force participation, time constraints, and the widespread availability of industrial bread, which have reshaped household food management and traditional home bread-making practices. The study aims to (1) review traditional Algerian breads, emphasizing their culinary, nutritional, and cultural significance; (2) examine household behaviors during the month of Ramadan in the city of Constantine, focusing on patterns of consumption, purchasing, waste generation, and strategies for reusing leftovers; and (3) assess the economic implications of these practices using the FUSIONS methodology and explore their contribution to household-level food sustainability. Methodologically, a cross-sectional exploratory survey was conducted among 100 married women, the majority of whom were middle-aged (62%; range: 27–71 years; mean age: 52.0 ± 10.21), well-educated (59% with a university degree), economically active (68%), and living in medium-sized households (63%). The findings reveal pronounced contrasts across bread categories. Industrial breads, particularly baguettes, are characterized by high daily purchase frequencies (4.16 ± 1.31 units/day) and the highest waste rates (12.67%), largely attributable to over-purchasing (92%) and low perceived value associated with subsidized prices, with convenience (100%) remaining the primary factor explaining their dominance. In contrast, traditional breads exhibit minimal waste levels (1.63%) despite frequent purchase (3.85 ± 0.70 loaves/day), reflecting more conscious food management shaped by strong cultural attachment, higher perceived value, and dietary preferences (100%). Modern bakery products, along with confections and pastries, the latter representing of 58% of total household food purchases, comprise a substantial share of food expenditure during Ramadan (2.16 ± 0.46 loaves/day and 12.07 and 7.28 ± 2.50 units/day, respectively), while generating relatively low levels of food waste (5.69%, 4.19%, and 0%, respectively). This suggests that higher prices and symbolic value encourage more careful purchasing behaviors and conscious consumption. Freezing leftovers (63%) emerges as the most commonly adopted waste-reduction strategy. Overall, this work provides original quantitative evidence at the household level on bread and bakery product waste in Algeria. It highlights the key socio-economic, cultural, and behavioral drivers underlying waste generation and proposes actionable recommendations to promote more sustainable food practices, in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12 on responsible consumption and production.

This article attempts to disentangle the age–period–cohort (APC) effect of the puzzling decline in female labour force participation in India. The individual-level data obtained from the National Sample Survey (NSS) (1993–2018) have been put to use, and the maximum entropy approach has been adopted for analysis. This study reveals that the prime reproductive age of women largely contributes to determining female labour force participation in India, signifying a considerable influence of marriage and childbearing events on women’s working life. The results inform that rural, lower caste and low educated women have lower work participation rates, as against urban and higher educated women having a greater participation rate at a younger age. However, beyond the prime reproductive age, the participation rate of urban and higher educated women significantly declines, while the participation of rural, lower caste and low educated women tends to increase. The period 1999–2005 in particular depicts an adverse effect on female labour force participation across all population groups. But this period of adversity is maintained for rural and less educated women beyond 2005 as well, and is reversed for urban women and for those having secondary or higher levels of education. Furthermore, it is observed that the cohort effect (owing to declining fertility and better educational transition) does not display its expected role in inducing a rise in female labour force participation, contesting the prevailing sociocultural norms. In summary, this study observes that the APC effect is adverse for marginalised women, but a favourable prospect for higher educated and urban women. This study observes that age and period effects have a significant contribution to female labour participation in India. Besides, this study presents some salient features of women’s working life cycle behaviour that are highly relevant for policy discussions. The study concludes by arguing that generating investment in higher education and enabling an inclusive labour market with due consideration of women’s reproductive burden may help increase the female labour force participation rate (FLPR) in India.

Economic prosperity, female labour force participation, and educational attainment: a comprehensive analysis from the Indian perspective

Childless and sonless in India: Implications for subjective well-being in mid- and older adulthood.

This study examines diversity of religious as a factor that influences key socio-economic indicators. The purpose of the research is to identify the relationship between the level of religious diversity and such indicators of regional development as GDP per capita, the Human Development Index (HDI), unemployment rate, urbanization level, female labour force participation, and population growth. The methodology includes agglomerative hierarchical clustering (Ward’s method) of the region’s countries based on selected socio-economic indicators, as well as pairwise correlation analysis between the Religious Diversity Index (RDI) and the identified variables. The analysis reveals four stable clusters of countries with distinct socio-economic and demographic profiles. Statistically significant positive correlations between the RDI and GDP per capita, HDI, and urbanization, along with a negative correlation with unemployment, indicate that higher religious heterogeneity is associated with stronger socio-economic performance. These results are interpreted as evidence of an indirect effect of religious diversity on the socio-economic environment through institutional and cultural mechanisms shaping social behaviour and economic activity. The scientific significance of the study lies in expanding the empirical basis for analysing the role of religion in the socio-economic development of Middle Eastern countries and refining our understanding of its influence. The findings can be applied in forecasting socio-economic trajectories of the region and in designing culturally sensitive development models.

The gender pay gap has been a prominent issue in India. Using panel data from the periodic labour force reports, this paper examines how the gender wage gap affects the female entrepreneurship rate in 36 Indian states and union territories across 2017 and 2024. The paper also focuses on factors such as working time for female entrepreneurs, female labour force participation rate, female unemployment rate, share of females in higher education and state-wise GDP using FGLS regression analysis. Additionally, in order to ensure accurate reporting and interpretation of data, diagnostic tests for multicollinearity, autocorrelation and heteroskedasticity were conducted. The results of the study revealed that there is no significant relationship between the gender pay gap and the female entrepreneurship rate in India, suggesting that income inequality for females does not directly correlate with the female entrepreneurship rate. However, the female labour force participation rate shows a positive impact, while working time, female unemployment rate and share of women in higher education depict an inverse relationship with the female entrepreneurship rate. The gender wage gap remains highly concentrated across states and formal sectors that are generally male-dominated, making it a less relevant factor for women entrepreneurs in India to consider, as they usually start small, informal businesses from home. Future policy implementations should provide access to finances like loans and credits for women, and awareness programs that encourage flexible working schedules and prevent gender-based stereotypes, essential for shaping female entrepreneurship decisions in India.

This study analyzes the effect of female labor force participation on income inequality using panel data from 26 Turkish regions (NUTS 2 level) between 2014 and 2023. The S80/S20 ratio measures income inequality. The model includes female labor force participation as the primary explanatory variable, with controls for the share of educated women, urbanization, unemployment, inflation, and real income per capita. An interaction term between female participation and educated women is added to explore how education influences this relationship. To address endogeneity, the GMM method is applied. Findings show that female participation initially increases inequality, but this effect reverses when the share of educated women is higher, highlighting that its impact depends on education levels, with important policy implications.

This study examines the long-term impacts of institutional quality governance on female employment in Türkiye over the period 1996–2023. Using annual data and employing the Dynamic Ordinary Least Squares (DOLS) method, the analysis examines how governance indicators released by the World Bank influence female labor force participation. Unit root tests confirm that all variables are stationary at their first differences, and Johansen cointegration results reveal the existence of a long-run association. Empirical findings show that while regulatory quality, rule of law, and political stability positively affect female employment, control of corruption and government effectiveness have negative long-term effects. These results highlight the importance of institutional dynamics in shaping gendered labor market outcomes.

Background: Gender inequality remains a pervasive global challenge, impeding human development and economic growth. The Gender Inequality Index (GII) offers a composite measure to assess these disparities across health, empowerment, and labor market dimensions. Objective: This cross-sectional study provides a comprehensive analysis of global gender inequality patterns across 118 countries, examining key drivers, correlations, and the interrelationships between different dimensions of disparity. Methods: We employed descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and linear regression on the most recent GII dataset (2025) from the World Bank. Data visualization techniques were used to identify patterns and trends across different development contexts. Results: Our analysis reveals stark global disparities, with GII values ranging from 0.009 (Denmark) to 0.484 (Iran). Adolescent birth rate demonstrates the strongest positive correlation with GII (r = +0.84), while female labor force participation shows a strong negative correlation (r = -0.68). Regression analysis indicates that adolescent birth rates and female parliamentary representation collectively explain 75% of GII variance. A significant "leaky pipeline" phenomenon emerges, where minimal education gaps widen dramatically in labor market participation, particularly in high-development countries. Conclusion: Gender inequality is most strongly driven by reproductive health disparities and political underrepresentation. Effective interventions must target the specific transition points where gender disparities amplify, particularly in converting educational attainment into economic and political empowerment.