Female Labor Force Participation Rate Research Articles

Missing Women in Formal Economic Sector: A Case Study of Odisha

The issue of 'missing women in the formal economy' has become increasingly urgent in light of the pandemic's profound adverse effects on women's social and economic standing. During the lockdown period, the absence of alternative caregiving options resulted in women being disproportionately burdened with caregiving responsibilities. Estimates indicate that the pandemic has led to a 30 percent increase in women's unpaid labor. In this context, the state of Odisha merits attention, as it frequently encounters natural disasters and faces the risk of descending into extreme poverty and unemployment due to COVID19. As a coastal state, Odisha boasts an effective literacy rate of 78.4% (74.2% in rural areas and 87.4% in urban areas), as reported in the latest PLFS Annual Report 2019-20 (statement -4). This achievement is commendable, attributable to the Odisha government's concerted efforts to eradicate illiteracy. Notably, despite favorable literacy rates in both rural and urban regions, the state exhibits a lag in female workforce participation, particularly within the formal sector. To effectively analyze this situation and identify the underlying causes of this paradox, a study was conducted to elucidate the historically low Female Labor Force Participation Rates (FLPRs) in Odisha, encompassing both rural and urban areas. For this purpose, secondary data from the National Sample Survey of 2019-20 and the Periodic Labour Force Survey report from July 2019 to June 2020 were utilized to ascertain the actual figures concerning FLPRs in Odisha. By analyzing the data, it was found that, under formal economic sector, only 16 % of women workforce are coming against a national average of 23.8% in Odisha. It is also worth mentioning that the female unemployment rate by 2019-20 was 37.4%, and the Worker Population Ratio was 35.7% for the age group of 15-59 years. The study also reveals that on the basis of regular wage distribution, only 7% of women in rural areas and 47.1% of women in urban areas are getting the salary on a 365 days basis and the rest are in the wings of the unorganized sector. This raises the question: What are educated women in Odisha doing, and how are they spending their time? To solve this unsolved question, this study attempts to find some possible solutions in a productive way.

Examining the Relationship Between Female Labour Force Participation and Crime Rates Against Women in India: A Cross-Regional Empirical Analysis

Examining the Relationship Between Female Labour Force Participation and Crime Rates Against Women in India: A Cross-Regional Empirical Analysis

Poverty and Labor Force Participation in Jambi Province: A Panel Data Analysis

Introduction/Main Objective: Labor force participation is crucial for improving household economic conditions. Theoretically, labor force participation in the job market can be influenced by several factors, including poverty levels. Documentation from the Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) of Jambi Province indicates that labor force participation rates vary across districts and cities in the province. This study aims to estimate the impact of poverty levels on labor force participation rates in Jambi Province. In this analysis, labor force participation is categorized into male and female labor force participation rates. Research Methodology: This study employs panel data from districts and cities during the 2018–2023 period. All data are sourced from published reports by the Central Bureau of Statistics (BPS) of Jambi Province. To estimate the relationship between variables, the study utilizes panel regression analysis with a fixed-effects approach. Findings/Results: The study demonstrates that poverty levels have a positive and significant impact on male and female labor force participation rates. The higher the poverty level, the higher the male and female labor force participation in the job market. Conversely, lower poverty levels are associated with lower labor force participation rates. Conclusion/Recommendations: Labor force participation in the job market is significantly determined by poverty levels. In other words, the challenges faced by households in meeting their basic needs drive increased participation in the job market. Therefore, it is recommended that district and city governments in Jambi Province enhance labor force participation by providing training and skills development programs, particularly for impoverished groups.

Analisis Faktor Penentu Tingkat Partisipasi Kerja Perempuan di Provinsi Jawa Timur

Women have a strategic role in economic development, but their participation in the job market is often constrained by social, economic, and cultural factors. This study aims to analyze the factors that affect the Female Labor Force Participation Rate (TPAKP) in East Java Province during the period 2014–2023. The variables studied include the minimum wage, the average length of schooling, and the Gross Regional Domestic Product (GDP). The data used is a combined panel data between time-lapse data and cross-data from 38 districts/cities in East Java. This research method uses panel data regression analysis with the Fixed Effect Model (FEM) model. The results of the study show that the minimum wage and the average length of schooling have a positive and significant influence on TPAKP. Rising wages encourage women to enter the job market, while higher education improves skills and job opportunities. In contrast, GDP has a positive but insignificant influence, as structural barriers in the economic sector limit women's participation. The study suggests increasing the minimum wage, investing in skills education and training, as well as gender-inclusive policies to increase women's participation in the job market. This research is also expected to be a reference for further studies that can expand the understanding of TPAKP determinants in other regions.

Women’s Economic Participation in Sri Lanka: Challenges and Opportunities

Women's economic participation is crucial for national development. However, Sri Lanka continues to experience a persistently low female labor force participation rate (LFPR) of 32.1% (Department of Census and Statistics, 2023), with a gender gap exceeding 40%. This study employs descriptive statistics and survey-based analysis to examine the key factors influencing women's employment, including education, marital status, workplace flexibility, and socio-cultural constraints. Using secondary data (2015-2023) and primary survey responses (N=300 women, N=50 employers), the study identifies major barriers such as childcare responsibilities, workplace discrimination, gender pay gaps, and sectoral employment disparities. Findings reveal that women are predominantly employed in low-paying sectors such as agriculture and services, while their representation in STEM, finance, and senior management remains critically low. The analysis highlights the urgent need for policy interventions, including stronger labor laws, enhanced childcare support, and workplace diversity initiatives to promote gender equity in employment. Additionally, entrepreneurship support and targeted education programs can help bridge the gap and create more opportunities for women in high-growth industries. Addressing these challenges through legal, institutional, and cultural reforms is essential for fostering an inclusive and sustainable labor market, ultimately contributing to Sri Lanka's economic progress.

DETERMINAN AGING POPULATION DI 5 NEGARA BERKEMBANG DI WILAYAH ASEAN: PENDEKATAN DATA PANEL

The rapid increase in the elderly population presents a significant challenge in many developing countries, including ASEAN members. This study investigates the factors influencing population aging in Indonesia, Malaysia, the Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam over the period of 2000 to 2023. Employing a Fixed Effects Model (FEM), this research examines the relationship between the proportion of the elderly population and the independent variables: fertility rate, life expectancy, Human Development Index (HDI), and female labor force participation rate. The analysis reveals that fertility rate and female labor force participation rate exhibit a statistically significant negative relationship with the proportion of the elderly population. Conversely, life expectancy and HDI demonstrate a statistically significant positive influence on the proportion of the elderly population. These findings highlight the importance of policies that consider trends in fertility, improvements in healthcare and longevity, advancements in human development, and the evolving role of women in the workforce when addressing the implications of population aging in the region. In response to this demographic shift, ASEAN countries should prioritize comprehensive strategies encompassing social security reforms, enhanced elderly care systems, initiatives for workforce adaptation, and policies that support sustainable human development.

Determinan Tingkat Partisipasi Angkatan Kerja Perempuan di Provinsi Jawa Barat

Labor is an important factor in supporting the success of development. The success of a development in human resources can be seen from the increasing role of women in employment. The female labor force participation rate (TPAK) shows how actively women participate in the labor force. So the purpose of this study is to analyze the factors that influence the Female Labor Force Participation Rate (TPAK) in West Java during the 2019-2023 period. The variables studied include Gender Empowerment Index (IDG), Regional Minimum Wage (UMR), Female Average Years of Schooling (RLS), and Female Life Expectancy (AHH). The method used is panel data regression with the Fixed Effect Model (FEM) as the selected model. The results show that IDG and UMR have a positive but insignificant effect on female TPAK in West Java, while female RLS has a negative and significant effect. In contrast, female AHH has a positive and significant effect on female TPAK in West Java. This finding shows that despite the increase in gender empowerment, women in West Java still work more in the informal sector. In addition, an increase in the minimum wage does not directly encourage an increase in women's TPAK, while education and health play an important role in increasing their participation in the labor market. Therefore, more effective policies are needed to improve access to education, health, and employment opportunities for women in West Java.

Analysis of Gender‐Inclusive Rural Transformation and Policies in Pakistan

ABSTRACTDespite rapid technological advancements and rural transformation in many Asian agricultural economies, persistent sociocultural norms, patriarchal barriers, and limited access to funding pose significant challenges to rural womenʼs participation in agricultural development. However, studies addressing gender disparities in this context are absent in Pakistan, highlighting a critical research gap. The present address this gap by conducting an analysis based on 78 districts over the period 2004 to 2019 to investigate whether gender inclusion has any role in the rural transformation process at the regional level or not. Using fixed effects panel model, findings highlight the role of educated women in advancing rural transformation. These impacts vary in magnitude across regions and stages. Education is significantly related to share of high‐value crops in agriculture, especially in districts of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where the impact is more pronounced compared to Baluchistan. However, education does not significantly increase female off‐farm employment in Punjab compared to Baluchistan, likely due to regional heterogeneity. In Sindh, increased female education correlates with a shift from farm to off‐farm employment. Additionally, female employment rate, female labour force participation rate, and per capita income positively influence rural transformation, especially at advanced stages.

Challenges in implementing digital employment platforms for women’s participation in Sri Lanka: A structural equation modeling approach

The female labor force participation (FLFP) rate is vital for socioeconomic growth, influencing productivity, economic progress, and gender equality. Despite advancements in women’s digital and computer skills, Sri Lanka’s FLFP remains low, averaging 34% over the past decade. The increasing digital skills among women present an opportunity to address this issue through digital employment platforms that offer flexible work arrangements and remote job opportunities, especially for women balancing work and family responsibilities. This study employs Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to quantitatively assess the challenges faced by women in using digital employment platforms within Sri Lanka’s banking and manufacturing sectors, which, despite their potential for digital transformation, exhibit low digital maturity. Findings reveal that inadequate technical skills, limited empowerment, weak communication, low confidence in digital technologies, and societal and institutional barriers are major obstacles. Additionally, poor professional networking, low interest in ICT skills, and insufficient risk assessment further hinder women's engagement with digital platforms. These barriers underscore the urgent need for targeted interventions to enhance technical training, empower women professionally, improve networking opportunities, and strengthen risk management, thereby promoting gender equality and inclusive employment within Sri Lanka’s labor market.

Analisis Faktor Penentu TPAK Berbasis Gender di Lampung (2018-2023)

This research aims to analyze the influence of Average Years of Schooling, District/City Minimum Wage, Gender Empowerment Index, Gender Development Index, and Economic Growth on the Labor Force Participation Level of men and women in 15 Districts/Cities of Lampung Province in the 2018-2023 period. This research uses panel data processed using the Random Effect Model (REM) method with strong standard errors in STATA software. The results of the research show that the average length of schooling has a significant negative effect on the male labor force participation rate, but not significantly on the female labor force participation rate. The Regency/City Minimum Wage has a significant positive influence on the Labor Force Participation Rate of men and women. The Gender Empowerment Index and Gender Development Index have a positive but not significant influence on the Labor Force Participation Levels of men and women. Meanwhile, Economic Growth has a positive but not significant effect on the male Labor Force Participation Rate, while on the female Labor Force Participation Rate, Economic Growth has a significant negative effect. Based on these findings, the government is expected to be able to provide educational effectiveness in improving the quality of the workforce and ensuring wage policies are in line with economic needs. In addition, gender empowerment programs need to be discussed in order to have a more significant impact on women's work participation.

A gender-based analysis of employment, workforce productivity, and economic growth in West Africa.

The study examined a gender-based investigation of employment, workforce productivity and economic growth in West African countries. The empirical analysis is centred on panel consisting of 16 West African countries over the period 2007-2019 using Esteve-Volarts model. The method of estimation employed are panel system generalised method of moments. The major findings suggest that there exists a positive and major relationship between male and female wage and salaried workers to economic growth although male wage contribution to growth supersedes female contribution. Also, male and female labour force participation rate are directly linked to economic growth. Likewise, female workforce productivity contributed significantly to economic growth of the selected countries. This study recommends that programmes should be put in place to facilitate more female participation in well paid jobs which will help enhance productivity as well as increase the growth in the countries. These recommendations will help to narrow the inequality of gender inequality in employment and productivity of workforce amongst West African countries.

To Study about Why Still Educated Females have Fewer Numbers in Government and Private Sectors in India

India is a country where one third of women have joined the labour force. As per the latest Periodic Labour Force Survey report, around 32.8% female of working age (15 years and above)were in labour force in 2021-22 which was just 23.3% in 2017-18, registered a surge of 9.5%points during these years. The major push came from the rural sector than the urban sector, where it increased by 12.0 and 3.4 percentage points, respectively. In rural areas, female Labour Force Participation Rate has increased to 36.6% during 2021-22 as compared to 24.6% in 2017-18, showed an increase of 12.0% points. On the other side, female participation in urban areas was significantly lower than the rural areas. Female Labour Force Participation Rate was 23.8% in 2021-22 as compared to 20.4% in 2017-18 in urban areas, showed an increase of just 3.4% points. Social norms about gender can be considered as a key obstacle towards gender equality. This is important to study the status of employment across industries in government and private sector of India.

A Comparative Analysis of Indian and Chinese Women’s Attitudes Toward Family, Childbearing, and Gender Norms

This paper examines the attitudes of Indian women toward family, childbearing, work outside the home, and proscribed gender norms, comparing them to women in China. The paper compares the two countries, noting that while they have experienced similar fertility declines, India has much lower female labor force participation rates. The paper explores the historical and cultural factors that influence these differences, including the legacy of socialist policies in China and the persistence of traditional gender roles in both countries. The research uses data from several waves of the World Values Survey to analyze women’s beliefs and values, comparing them across demographics and exploring the relationship between these attitudes and individual characteristics. The paper ultimately aims to understand the drivers of these differences and their implications for gender equality and social development in both countries.

Labour Market and Informalization of Employment

Structural change in output must be followed by structural change in employment providing more employment opportunities. Quality employment opportunities and productive employment generation is the key to growth with equity and to alleviate poverty. It is observed that the share of informal sector declines with the process of economic development. It is evident that structural change in the occupational distribution occurred both in the rural areas and in the urban areas as well but this change in employment remained slower in Haryana. The present research paper aims to analyze the economy of Haryana with the following objectives- (i) to explore the labor market; (ii) to analyze the pattern of employment growth (ii) to understand the informalization of employment. The period after economic reforms, underwent low safety net for the poor workers and other marginalized sections of the society. It has been empirically found that there is lower labor force participation rate in Haryana. The female labor force participation rate has also remained low. Imperfections in the labor market in Haryana are reflected in terms of monopsony markets, labor unions, non-measurement of productivity, preferences for home town jobs, rigid labor markets. There are high wage differentials and widening gaps among skilled-unskilled, rural-urban and men-women in labor markets. It led to the informalization of labor market which not only increased number of the informal sector workers but also created informal workers with-in the formal sector in Haryana.

The Effect of Global Gender Inequality and Female Employment on The Economic Growth: Panel ARDL

Abstract Purpose: This study aims to analyse whether global gender inequality and female employment have any short-term and long-term effects on economic growth in Organization for Economic Cooperation Development (OECD) countries and to explore the existence and direction of causality between global gender inequality, women’s employment, and economic growth in OECD countries during the study period. Design/methodology/approach: In the study, the dependent variable is the person Per Capita Growth, and the dependent variables are the Global Gender Gap Index (GGGI) and Female Labour Force Participation Rate (KIKO). The data set of the variables consists of the period 2006-2023. The relationship between the variables was tested with the Pooled Mean Group (PMG) Panel ARDL test. In addition, the Pairwise Dumitrescu Hurlin (PDH) Panel Causality test was used to measure homogeneous or heterogeneous causality between the variables. Findings: According to the results of the PMG Panel ARDL test; while it was determined that only the KIKO data affected Economic Growth in the short term, it was concluded that both independent variables affected the dependent variable in the long term. According to the PDH Panel Causality Test, it was determined that there is a bidirectional heterogeneous causality relationship between gender inequality and economic growth. While women’s employment is the heterogeneous cause of economic growth, economic growth is the homogeneous cause of women’s employment. Finally, there is also a bidirectional homogeneous causality between women’s employment and gender inequality. Research limitations/implications: According to the results of the Pooled Mean Group Panel ARDL test; a 1% increase in the GGGI independent variable causes a decrease of approximately 2.83% in the dependent variable PERGDP in the long term. On the other hand, a 1% increase in the KIKO independent variable causes an increase of approximately 0.05% in PERGDP in long term. the short-term coefficients are examined as a group average, the KIKO independent variable affects PERGDP in the short term, while the GGGI independent variable does not affect PERGDP in the short term. Social Implications: When the analysis results obtained in this report are evaluated, they provide extremely strategic results for policymakers in the decisions they will make. The effect of gender inequality on economic growth allows the evaluation of gender differences in economic, educational, health, and political outcomes between women and men based on existing data. On the other hand, this study can contribute to both the contribution to national income and social and gender equality, considering the contribution that the increase in women’s employment rate will provide to the country’s economy in both the short and long term. Originality / Value: In line with its purpose, this study is thought to fill the gap in the literature in terms of the period it covers, the countries, the variables used and the method chosen. Keywords: Gender Inequality, Women’s Employment, Economic Growth, Panel ARDL, Global Gender Gap Index.

The Effect of Female Education and Female Labor Force Participation Rate on Poverty Alleviation in East Java

This study aims to determine the effect of women's education and women's labor force participation rate on poverty alleviation in East Java. This research method uses quantitative methods analyzed using panel data regression analysis. Poverty in East Java is still above the national average from 2010 to 2022. In 2023, East Java's poverty rate was the highest after Yogyakarta Province. Efforts are needed to improve the quality of human resources through education. Individuals who have good formal education tend to have better access to stable jobs and better wages, which can help them avoid falling into poverty. The findings of this Random Effect Model estimation study show that partially women's education has a significant negative effect on poverty alleviation and women's labor force participation rate (TPAK) has a significant positive effect on poverty alleviation in East Java. Simultaneously, female education and female labor force participation rate have a significant effect on poverty alleviation in East Java.

The Impact of Female Labor Force Participation on Enhancing Human Development Throughout the Stages of Global Demographic Dividends

The low female labor force participation rate (FLFPR) must increase to empower women and enhance the demographic dividend (DD) to promote human development. The United Nations Human Development Index serves as the fundamental measurement tool for assessing progress in human development, evaluating the three components of healthcare delivery, educational standards, and economic productivity. Research investigating the global impacts of the female labor force participation rate on the Human Development Index reveals its influence at different demographic dividend stages, from Pre-DD to Early-DD, Late-DD, and Post-DD, from 1990 to 2019. The female labor force participation rate exhibits a significant positive correlation with the Human Development Index at all phases of the demographic dividend period, according to results obtained from Driscoll-Kraay standard error regression and Dumitrescu–Hurlin causality testing. The female labor force participation rate shows an inverse U-shaped relationship with the Human Development Index in both the Pre-DD and Post-DD periods, yet demonstrates a U-shaped pattern in Early-DD and Late-DD across all regions and globally. The female labor force participation rate and the Human Development Index remain directly connected during every demographic dividend period. Population growth and per capita GDP have been confirmed to enhance the global Human Development Index while benefiting all phases of demographic dividend development. The observed evidence indicates that implementing appropriate policies to optimize female labor force participation is essential to access all advantages from demographic dividends. Through gender equity policies, policymakers can enhance human development in every aspect by strategically managing populations alongside economic improvements for women.

The Nexus Between Female Labor Force Participation and Economic Development: A Global Study Across the Phases of Demographic Dividends.

Economic growth, commonly measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), is influenced by various factors, including the Female Labor Force Participation Rate (FLFPR), which remains notably low worldwide. Improving FLFPR is crucial for unlocking demographic dividends and advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This research explores the impact of FLFPR, population size, the Human Development Index (HDI), energy consumption, and the Male Labor Force Participation Rate (MLFPR) on GDP, utilizing data from 118 countries between 1990 and 2019, categorized by different stages of demographic dividends. By employing advanced panel econometric techniques, the study indicates that population size may negatively affect GDP at the global level. Simultaneously, energy consumption emerges as a significant positive driver of GDP, particularly during the early stages of demographic dividends. HDI shows the most substantial positive effect among all variables, especially in post-dividend phases, highlighting the importance of prioritizing population quality over sheer quantity. MLFPR is pivotal in GDP growth, although its effects vary across demographic stages. Meanwhile, FLFPR reveals stage-specific influences, including a U-shaped relationship in pre-dividend phases and an inverse U-shaped relationship during early dividend stages. The analysis emphasizes a bidirectional causality among the variables, showcasing their intricate interdependence. The findings highlight the need for demographic-stage-specific strategies to enhance human development as a primary catalyst for sustainable economic growth.

Female Labor Force Participation and Sustainable Development: A Global Study

Low female labor force participation is a critical global issue, and the global agenda is achieving sustainable development. This study explores the impact of female labor force participation on economic, social, and environmental development, which are the three main pillars of sustainable development. To measure these pillars, the study uses indicators such as per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the United Nations’ Human Development Index (HDI), and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per capita. The primary variable of interest is the female labor force participation rate (FLFPR), with additional variables including total population (POP), per capita energy consumption (ENG), and the male labor force participation rate (MLFPR), which serve as both study and control variables. The research is conducted using data from a global panel of 118 countries spanning from 1990 to 2019. To effectively handle cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity, second-generation panel data methods are employed. The Driscoll-Kraay robust standard error regression is utilized to estimate both the linear and nonlinear effects of female labor force participation on economic, social, and environmental development. Furthermore, the Dumitrescu–Hurlin causality test is applied to identify short-run causal relationships among the study variables. Empirical findings indicate that an increase in female labor force participation leads to enhancements in per capita GDP and HDI while contributing to a reduction in CO2 emissions globally. The relationship between female labor force participation and per capita GDP is found to be U-shaped, whereas its relationship with HDI and CO2 emissions is inverse U-shaped. These results underscore that higher female labor force participation significantly boosts economic, social, and environmental development worldwide, highlighting the importance for policymakers to foster sustainable development by maximizing the advantages of female labor force participation on a global scale.

Women's activity in developing countries: Determinants and impact on growth.

Women's participation in the workforce remains lower than men's, particularly in developing countries and regions such as North Africa and South Asia. This inequality, which persists despite rising incomes, raises questions about its link with economic development and the factors that explain it (cultural, religious, structural). The study aims to analyze this relationship, testing whether the low integration of women is holding back growth, and whether variables such as religion, hydrocarbons or education influence their participation. Based on a panel of 91 developing countries (1990-2018), two econometric models are used. The first explains women's share of the workforce in terms of GDP/capita, religious affiliation, urbanization, education and the share of hydrocarbons in exports. The second models GDP/capita growth, this time including the female labor force participation rate as an explanatory variable, alongside socio-economic and institutional indicators. The regressions reveal a U-shaped relationship between female participation and GDP/capita: it decreases up to a threshold of $3,100, then increases. Religious affiliation has no significant impact, unlike hydrocarbons: a 1% increase in fossil fuel exports reduces female participation by 0.05 points. On the other hand, economic growth is not affected by the female activity rate in the models tested. Economic development alone is not enough to reduce gender inequalities: structural factors (dependence on hydrocarbons) play a key role. Cultural and religious specificities are less decisive than assumed. Finally, low female participation does not, in itself, seem to slow down growth, which raises questions about the mechanisms by which gender equality promotes development. The study underlines the need for targeted policies (economic diversification, education, egalitarian laws) to reinforce women's economic autonomy.