Female Congregations Research Articles

Female Imam and Khatib: The Shifting in Worship Traditions from Progressive to Conservative in Sungai Landia, West Sumatra, Indonesia

The changes in the implementation of eid prayers in Sungai Landia by abolishing women’s rights to become imam and khatib do not necessarily eliminate the progressive sides of Sungai Landia women. This study aims at exploring the persistence of progressive sides in the transition process of eid prayer tradition from female imam and khatib to conservative fiqh provisions. This research is qualitative in nature with the main data obtained from community leaders and women from Sungai Landia. The data analysis was carried out using a descriptive method. This study concludes that the process of changing to conservative fiqh was carried out by going through the stages of fiqh scientific deepening and socialization for four years to avoid chaos in society. The community began to realize their mistake because of criticism from various parties. The criticisms were not only from the local community, but also from the ulama who were invited to give religious lectures. Sungai Landia women accepted the change with the condition that male and female congregations must still be separate in implementing eid prayers even though the imam and khatb are men. There are progressive sides that are still maintained by paying attention to aspects of gender equality and social justice to create peace in worship as evidenced by the existence of public recognition for women to be separate from men in carrying out the eid prayers.

Black women’s bodies as sacrificial lambs at the altar

The youth in South Africa are subject to unemployment and the pressure to fit into society. The unemployment rate in South Africa is high; therefore, some find themselves desperate for employment and often find themselves hoping and praying for a miracle; hence, the number of churches in South Africa is increasing. People go to church to be prayed for by ministers in a hope to better their lives and that of their families. Some of these young South Africans became victims of sexual harassment, rape and gender-based violence (GBV) at the hands of their pastors. The aim of this article was to challenge the church in identifying ways to break the cycle of perpetrators among pastors and help find the role pastoral counsellors can play regarding both victims and offenders to prevent history from repeating itself. Domestic violence and abuse in South Africa have been investigated by various disciplines. One of the most difficult realities for the church is the existence of clergy who abuse their female congregants. The article will create an awareness of violence against black women at the temple of black churches which is vindicated by Christian faith as miracle and healing. The violence against black women at the temple of the churches is patriarchal violence as male clergy sacrifice them in the name of faith using the bible. Some scholars of Black theology of liberation (BTL) argue that Elmina Castle had a chapel where women trading took place. Elmina Castle had a dungeon that kept black women who were waiting to be sold to a trade master. This article also exposed patriarchal violence that has been engraved on black women using the Bible by male clergy and connected Elmina Castle to Bishops Israel Makamu and Stephen Bafana Zondo to see the position of black women in these temples. Black theology of liberation was used to expose oppression of black women, by black men, in black churches.Contribution: This article aimed to challenge pastoral care givers to remain ethical during pastoral care and counselling to those in need, especially young women. This study was a literature review study.

PROPHETIC COMMUNICATION APPROACH OF FEMALE CONGREGATION THROUGH QUR’AN TEACHING AT FATHUR RAHMAN MOSQUE, SLEMAN

Da'i is required to grasp the purpose of da'wah, this is applied to the assembly of women in the category of mothers, with their da'wah efforts to complete the blindness of the Qur'an in children who are in the Fatur Rahman Mosque environment. So, this article wants to know how the prophetic communication approach in da'wah used by female congregants. The method in this study involves qualitative research of the phenomenological type. The findings in this article reveal that women can construct an effective da'wah movement and be able to overcome the blindness of the Qur'an in children at the Fathur Rahman Mosque by adopting three da'wah strategies that are built, namely: First, motivating da'wah technique. Second, the reward da'wah approach. Third da'wah method of singing and sima'i.

The paradox of safety between pastors and female congregants

Gender-Based Violence (GBV) is a world concern; however, in South Africa it has been declared as a national crisis that is embedded in the social-cultural context and history of the country. One of the greatest challenges in South Africa is the high unemployment rate and the pressure to fit into society. Some of those unemployed South Africans go to church for prayers with the hope to get employed. Unemployed South Africans are vulnerable due to unemployment and pressure to fit in, and this is sometimes influenced by social media. Some pastors take advantage of these individuals either by asking them to plant a “seed” (money) or taking advantaged of them sexually. Women, young and old are the most vulnerable in church, the pressure to get employment, to get married, to stay married, to have children etc. are the most common prayer requests from women in church. GBV in South Africa have been an ongoing investigation by various disciplines. One of the most difficult and sensitive realities to investigate is the existence of clergy who abuse women they are supposed to care for as caregivers. The Church has been in the front line in spearheading programms within it to deal with GBV but little to done are said about Pastors as perpetrators directly the problem of GBV has been further fueled by socio status, poverty, gender and equality issues, African culture, long-standing silence about a problem that undermines the very foundations of pastoral work and institutional Christianity: sexual abuse of women by pastors. The aim of this article to challenge theology and the church on how the cycle of perpetrators among pastors can be broken and what role can pastoral counsellors’ play regarding both victims and offenders to prevent history from repeating itself and assure female congregants of their safety in church, this study will use literature review.

Il velo del silenzio. Abusi, violenze, frustrazioni nella vita religiosa femminile by Salvatore Cernuzio

Reviewed by: Il velo del silenzio. Abusi, violenze, frustrazioni nella vita religiosa femminile by Salvatore Cernuzio Claudia Giampietro, JCL Il velo del silenzio. Abusi, violenze, frustrazioni nella vita religiosa femminile. By Salvatore Cernuzio. Edizioni San Paolo, 2021. Pp. 208. €20. A veil of silence lies on the reality of abuse that torments many women who embrace the path of religious life. Superiors general, novice mistresses, treasurers, and other members of female religious communities of both apostolic [End Page 208] and contemplative life are described as thirsty for power and perpetrators of unbearable discriminations in the eleven short stories anonymously told to journalist Salvatore Cernuzio by current and former religious sisters. They come from different countries, sometimes transferred to places very far from their homeland to join an international novitiate. Not even an unshakeable ability to adjust to challenges would be enough to deal with the intolerable conditions recounted, in which a life of spiritual perfection, total submission to authority, and denial of fundamental freedoms seems to be the wished-for goal by their major superiors who lost the vision and understanding of the radical following of Christ. The stories collected by C., an Italian reporter who works for the Holy See's media office, leave one astonished in reading about the incredible pain experienced by women who are defined as "departed" (72) because of their decision to leave their congregations to receive care and assistance once they fall prey to burnout and psychiatric disorders. Such decisions are harshly judged by their superiors and sometimes justified with a distorted interpretation of biblical passages and criticism of the younger generations who, in their words, would not be generous enough to follow God with an undivided heart. Many of the women C. interviews find themselves having to choose between being forced "to remain in a place that they do not see any more as ideal to seek God's will" (154) or enter into a kind of non-existence outside the institute, where they have few resources to help themselves. It is easy to imagine the "departed" members as a new category of souls lingering in Dante's Limbo, a place that materializes on this earth whenever women who choose to leave a given institute are labeled as lost for the rest of their lives, or unworthy of being listened to because they could only be capable of expressing anger and desire for vengeance. The sad reality is that often religious institutes do not plan any support measures for the members who leave and who therefore find themselves without family or friends to rely on for a safe shelter. In some cases, they are told to gather their belongings overnight and leave without any money or the possibility to have further contact with people with whom they shared a considerable part of their life journey (38). There are a few structures that provide former religious sisters and nuns with the help needed. This is the case of the Chaire Gynai (in English "Welcome, woman") integration project in Rome, managed by the Scalabrinian Sisters to welcome women in conditions of fragility and of any status, age, or origin (45). In the eyes of their major superiors, hesitation, mental issues, difficulty in bending one's will to all-powerful leaders represent dead ends after years of impeccable commitment and self-giving (81). While evaluating the causes of such abuse, Italian psychiatrist and psychotherapist Prof. Tonino Cantelmi [End Page 209] affirms: "In female congregations the incapacity of authentic integration is very frequent, and above all it is possible to identify a clamorous short-sightedness of superiors general in handling the talents of sisters or nuns" (171–72). C.'s narratives indicate there are institutes that do not consider the diversity of talents of their members, and in this way hinder a new flourishing of the institutes. This is an evil from both an individual and collective perspective. There is a common frustration among religious women forced to satisfy senseless demands imposed by a tunnel-visioned leadership. For those who do not follow this unspoken rule by manifesting their skills and desire to improve them for the sake of the institute, the consequence is being marginalized or...

Irish Nuns and Education in the Anglophone World, 1800–1900

This article provides an account of some of the education provisions by Irish women religious, in the Anglophone world, in the nineteenth century. Although many orders sent Sisters around the globe, to both establish and run schools for English-speaking children, the main focus of this article is on two Irish orders, the Sisters of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Sisters of Mercy. While the work of other female congregations is noted, the focus on these two orders reflects the fact that they spread quickly around the globe, attracting many Irish vocations and eventually making a substantial contribution to education. The Sisters of Mercy were also known for their work in health care; however, the focus of this article is on education. The article commences with a review of the research in the field and the approaches taken by historians. The article also notes some lacunae in research and points to areas that merit more attention. The article then examines the experience of Irish nuns overseas and the contribution of the Mercy and Presentation nuns.

Diecezje łucka i żytomierska w świetle schematyzmu na 1832 rok (2). Dekanaty, parafie, zakony, kościoły i klasztory

The presented article describing the administrative structure of the Dioceses of Lutsk and Zhytomyr in the fall of 1831 is part of the text describing the state of these dioceses in the light of schematism published for 1832. The description of the Dioceses of Lutsk and Zhytomyr and the previously published description of the Kamieniec diocese are part of a project aimed at presenting the condition of the Latin rite in Russia before the outbreak of the November Uprising. The fall of the uprising accelerated the actions of the Russian authorities aimed at limiting the activities of the Catholic Church and subordinating it to the state. The time of relative freedom of the Church in the tsarist state ended then, as well as the time of unhampered pastoral activity conducted in Polish. The text describes the boundaries of both dioceses, the deanery, parishes, male and female monasteries operating in the diocese, and the churches that functioned at that time. The Lutsk diocese was reactivated in 1798 with the capital in Lutsk, and the diocese of Zhytomyr was established at that time, with the capital in Żhytomyr (connected by a personal union), following the decision of the authorities recognized by the Holy See, they covered the area of the Volyn governorate. In 1831, the Lutsk diocese was divided into ten deaneries, and the Zh?ytomyr diocese – into two. At that time, there were 120 parishes in both dioceses (113 in the Lutsk diocese and 17 in the Zhytomyr diocese). The diocesan clergy conducted pastoral ministry and administered the benefice in 84 parishes, religious in 36. There were 63 monasteries and religious houses, 55 male orders and congregations, and 8 female congregations.

PENGELOLAAN KEUANGAN RUMAH TANGGA DI ERA COVID-19 BERBASIS EKONOMI ISLAM PADA JAMAAH PEREMPUAN MASJID AL-MUTTAQIN DUSUN KALIREJO DESA NGUNGGAHAN KECAMATAN BANDUNG KABUPATEN TULUNGAGUNG

This study aims to actualize the management of household finances based on Islamic economics in female congregations of the Al-Muttaqin Mosque. This is because in the Covid-19 pandemic situation, the family is one of the components affected by economic stability. Thus, through the model of empowering family financial management based on Islamic economics for the female congregation of the Al-Muttaqin mosque, it is very important. Through very in-depth mentoring and study, this work resulted in the finding that in the era of the Covid-19 pandemic, the management of household finances based on Islamic economics for the female congregation of the Al-Muttaqin mosque is very important because the situation and economic downturn have an impact on household finances. So that the management of household finances based on Islamic economics becomes a solution.

Religious Social Values in the Wiridan Tradition in the Village of Lubuk Bayas, North Sumatra

This article describes the wiriddan tradition carried out by the community in Lubuk Bayas Village, North Sumatra. The focus of this study is on two wiriddan traditions, which take place twice a week, once especially for male congregations and another day specifically for female congregations. This research uses interview, observation, and descriptive analysis methods. In this tradition, the congregation usually reads surah yasin, al-ikhlash, al-falaq, al-nas and takhtim takhlil. Wiriddan activities take place at the house of a community by applying a rotating system. Through the interview method, the writer can classify several social values that are considered by the community to be very important and make it a motivation to continue to carry out the wiriddan tradition. The socio-religious values that are felt by the community, including the moment of gathering, the opportunity to give alms, mutual assistance, respect for teachers, a forum for dialogue between residents, and through this way, they can strengthen brotherhood, especially between neighbors.

Women Friendly Mosque in Banda Aceh: A Study of the Concept of Gender Justice and Gender Planning Perspective

This paper analyzed how several mosques as a public space are not friendly to one gender group. Mosques as public spaces should be accessible to everyone and must accommodate the needs of all gender groups. This study seeks to see how the spatial arrangement that is not friendly to women impacts the comfort of women to worship in the mosque. In addition, this study also tries to analyze mosques in Banda Aceh, which are considered gender-responsive. This study uses qualitative methods with in-depth interviews and uses gender planning theory as an analytical tool. This study found several findings. First, the comfort and discomfort related to the arrangement of space and facilities are experienced by female congregations and male congregations. Second, assumptions that affect spatial planning and facilities have discriminated against one gender group. Third, mosques in Aceh are generally intended for men; this results in the layout of the mosque not accommodating the needs of women.

“We are Already Dried Fruits”: Women Celebrating a Tu BiSh’vat Seder in an Israeli Reform Congregation

Jewish holidays have always been considered a sociocultural framework that designs the Jewish communal landscape. One such ritual is Tu BiSh’vat Seder, a ritual conducted annually by various Jewish congregations and social movements on the 15th of the month of Sh’vat. These communities conduct the ritual with its traditional festival symbols and infuse it with new social and cultural interpretations. This essay presents an ethnographic analysis of a Reform Tu BiSh’vat Seder in Israel in which the holiday’s spiritual narrative and symbols were related to the female congregants’ bodies and expressed their social interaction. Observing the women’s preparations for the Seder, participating in the performance of the ritual itself, and listening to the female Rabbi’s sermon allowed me to understand the diverse gendered meanings which are infused into the ritual. The Tu BiSh’vat Seder revealed the female congregants’ attitudes toward their own bodies and ages and even their attitudes toward one another. Furthermore, by participating in the Seder, they did not only produce sisterhood and feminine solidarity but also blurred the boundaries between their private homes and the congregational space. Thus, it can be said that the Reform congregation serves as a safe space that provides a viable Jewish theological framework and is an arena for gender discourses.

Women at Work: Governance and Financial Administration at the Court Beguinages of the Southern Low Countries in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

Abstract From the thirteenth century through the nineteenth, the Court Beguinages, large semi-monastic communities for women called Beguines, were integral to urban life in the Catholic Low Countries. In the wake of the Dutch Revolt and reestablishment of Spanish rule in the Southern provinces from the mid-1580s, the Beguinages became increasingly aligned with the ideology of female monasticism, and particularly with the tradition of Mary and Martha: the mix of contemplative prayer and humble work that had traditionally been at the heart of tertiary convents and other active female congregations. While many Beguines did indeed make their livings from manual labor, the Beguinages also offered women of ambition unparalleled opportunities to take on leadership roles of great responsibility and authority. This essay examines the labor of Beguinage administration in the early modern period and situates the careers of Beguine leaders in their social and gendered contexts.

Language Management in ��International�� Pentecostal Churches in Cameroon

This paper considers Pentecostal churches whose names include such globalising terms as “all nations”, “global”, “international”, “universal” and “world”, with a view to uncovering the nature of their language management, as it has not been made explicit in any document. The data come from some 35 churches located in various residential areas of the city of Yaounde. In each church, five members were contacted i.e. one pastor, one church official, one choir leader and one male and one female congregants. The instruments used were a questionnaire, informal discussions, interviews and participant observation. A total of 40 highly motivated research assistants were involved in the data collection process, which took place in January and February 2016. The framework used for the analysis was the structural-functional model. The analysis revealed that the services of these churches contained four to 13 parts and that the languages used to realise these parts were French and English, with translation from one language to the other being systematic. When tongue speaking was used, translation was not done. During Testimonies, congregants not sufficiently competent in French or English occasionally switched to Pidgin or a few Cameroonian languages. Most of these churches were found not to be represented in other countries outside Cameroon and those that were said to use English singly or in combination with other languages, not with French.

"As a Community, We Need to be More Health Conscious": Pastors' Perceptions on the Health Status of the Black Church and African-American Communities.

Churches are recognized for their potential capacity to provide health services and interventions to address health disparities in African-Americans (blacks). Since pastors are central community leaders, their support and involvement can influence both implementation and outcomes for church-based health programs. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore pastors' perceptions of congregant health status within the black church. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 11 pastors whose female congregants participated in a physical activity intervention. Thematic analysis techniques were used to analyze interview data. Three major themes emerged: (1) health risks in the African-American community, (2) health promotion in the black church, and (3) the importance of women in the black family and the church. Pastors noted numerous health disparities affecting their congregants and the African-American community at large, including obesity and infant mortality. They viewed health holistically and included faith in their perspectives. According to pastors, holistic health was promoted through health ministry programming in black churches. Women were described as the cornerstone of the black church, yet faced unique health concerns from their roles as family caretakers and congregants. Pastors shared their major concerns for congregant health status and the African-American community. Health interventions focusing on African-Americans in church settings should include pastor involvement and should incorporate holistic approaches to address health risks.

Wpływ systemu wychowawczego św. Jana Bosko na działalność opiekuńczo-wychowawczą zgromadzeń zakonnych w Polsce

Święty ksiądz Jan Bosko (1815–1888) był wybitnym wychowawcą młodzieży, twórcą oryginalnego systemu wychowawczego zwanego prewencyjnym (zapobiegawczym). Założył nowe zgromadzenia zakonne – salezjanów – zajmujących się opieką i wychowaniem byłych małoletnich więźniów, opuszczonych i osieroconych chłopców z okolic Turynu. W roku 1872 opiekę nad ubogimi i osieroconymi dziewczętami powierzył nowemu zgromadzeniu Córek Maryi Wspomożycielki (salezjanki). Program opieki nad podopiecznymi był oparty na zasadach wychowania chrześcijańskiego, życiu eucharystycznym wychowanków, których w zakładach i oratoriach otaczano rozumną miłością, przyjaźnią i dobrocią. Podopieczni uczęszczali do zorganizowanych dla nich szkół zawodowych i warsztatów, które w przyszłości dawały im szansę na lepsze życie. Końcem XIX wieku zakon ten został sprowadzony na ziemie polskie, gdzie prężnie się rozwijał. Z salezjańskich wzorców wychowawczych współcześnie czerpią także inne zgromadzenia zakonne zajmujące się wychowaniem dzieci i młodzieży na ziemiach polskich, tj.: Zgromadzenie św. Michała Archanioła, Zgromadzenie Sióstr św. Michała Archanioła (michalitki), Zgromadzenie Sióstr Pasterek od Opatrzności Bożej, a także stowarzyszenia świeckie działające w tzw. Rodzinie Salezjańskiej.

The role of monastic embroidery workshops in the formation of the early modern Polish embroidery

The article presents the state of research and the research problems concerning the early modern Polish embroidery and the role of the monastic workshops in its formation. Embroidery was one of the regular occupation in the female congregations. Nuns embroidered for their churches, as well as they took the orders from outside – from male congregations, the higher clergy and the secular customers. Their importance has increased in the 17th century, and in the 18th century nearly all convents dealt with this craft. The preserved embroideries reflect the general stylish trends prevailing in the handicrafts, but they are characterized by greater conservatism. Their level is very varied, from perfect works to very weak and inept ones. Nuns rarely prepared themselves patterns for embroideries, more often they used the services of craftsmen or they were repeating the proven solutions. They certainly used the embroidery pattern books. An important inspiration for them were also patterns of fabrics. While the floral motifs showed high proficiency, in less common figural presentations we often see much incompetence. Vestments decorated with the elaborate symbolic representations are distinguished among them. At this stage of research it seems that the monastic workshops have had a major impact on the prosperity of embroidery in the Republic of Poland and that along with the guilds they developed a certain style and taste. Preserved objects are waiting for being catalogued and for insightful research that let us connect more of them with definite workshops.

Reconciling the god and gender gaps: the influence of women in church politics

ABSTRACTSocial scientists have long recognized women as being both more religious and more liberal than men. Indeed, men have been disaffiliating from churches and the Democratic Party at higher rates than women for several decades. Moreover, we show evidence to suggest that churchgoing women, while less liberal than women in the general population, are nevertheless more liberal than churchgoing men. Given these trends, one might expect churches to have become more liberal in response to these changing demographics. However, using nationally representative data of American congregations and their adherents, we show that churches with a higher percentage of female congregants are actually more conservative. We suggest that the institutional structure of churches limits the ideological influence and contributions of women within the church community. Specifically, women are often excluded formally or informally from decision-making leadership positions in the church. When women are allowed greater access to leadership positions, however, we find that congregations do tend to be less politically conservative. These findings suggest that churches and other civic organizations, which are major direct and indirect political actors, may be insulated from changes in the partisan or ideological makeup of their membership through their allocation of important leadership roles.

¿Fanáticas, maternales o feministas? Monjas y congregacionistas en la España decimonónica

One of the most important aspects of Catholic feminization in 19th century was the notable increase of female congregations, which joined to the most traditional enclosed orders. The femininity models of this time tended to imagine religious women, either as weak and fanatic individuals because of their confessors’ influence, or as innocent maternal angels who assisted to needy people in a selfless way. Both constructions hid the most radical side of female congregations and especially of their mother superiors. Ambition, authority and leadership were some of the elements that characterized these women lives. Through the cases of two congregation founders, I will reflect on their agency and discuss if these women can be qualified as feminists.

Congregaciones religiosas, educación y escuela en Italia en el siglo XIX

This article traces the origins and development of about 140 new religious male and female congregations, established in Italy during the Nineteenth century. Starting from the Restoration period, the article frames the actions and choices of the new religious congregations with reference to the new scenarios produced by the revolutionary experience and by the changes introduced in ecclesiastical legislation and in the relations between State and Church during the Napoleonic era. At the same time, it deals with the unusual challenges the Church had to face due to both the secularization of mentality and customs and the increased educational needs and welfare of the post-revolutionary period. The author analyses some characteristics of these new religious institutions, most of which chose as privileged —and sometimes exclusive— activity of their apostolate the assistance (of poor and sick people, and of abandoned children and youth), the catechesis and animation of religious life in the parishes and, above all, the education of youth of both sexes and of different social classes. Firstly, the author describes the aspect related to the general adoption of the structure of religious congregations, which provides unequivocal evidence of the prevalence, also on the female side, of the traditional monastic model, of a vocation to religious life understood essentially as an active life devoted to charity, a synthesis between action and prayer, a commitment in the world through the assistance of others. The author’s reconstruction also shows how the idea of charity promoted by the new religious congregations was understood not simply as a commitment to provide assistance, but also, and above all, as an educational responsibility. Indeed, the new religious congregations considered education, school and parish catechesis as the most effective tools for Christians’ education. At the same time, school and education were also seen as the most direct and useful tool for relieving poverty and overcoming the marginalisation of the poorer classes and as the most effective tool for facilitating the successful integration of young working class men and women into society.

The Independent Orders of B’nai B’rith and True Sisters: Pioneers of a New Jewish Identity, 1843–1914 by Cornelia Wilhelm (review)

Reviewed by: The Independent Orders of B’nai B’rith and True Sisters: Pioneers of a New Jewish Identity, 1843–1914 by Cornelia Wilhelm Shira Kohn Cornelia Wilhelm. The Independent Orders of B’nai B’rith and True Sisters: Pioneers of a New Jewish Identity, 1843–1914. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2011. Pp. 361. Hardcover $44.95. ISBN 0814334032. In this compelling study, Cornelia Wilhelm traces the history of the nineteenth-century fraternal order of B’nai B’rith and its female counterpart, the United Order of True Sisters (UOTS) and situates them in a broader framework that connects the founders’ mission to their self-awareness as German Jews in America. The narrative also elucidates the important connection between B’nai B’rith and the birth of Reform Judaism in both Germany and the United States. Other scholars have documented the formation and impressive expansion of B’nai B’rith during this period, but only in Wilhelm’s volume does its centrality within the Jewish communal landscape fully emerge. Indeed, she persuasively argues that her subjects created, or “pioneered,” a new transnational model of modern Jewish identity by using their commitment to German notions of self-betterment and Reform Judaism’s precepts to demonstrate their suitability for civic engagement within the American landscape. Founded in 1843 by a group of laymen in New York City’s Congregation Anshe Chesed, a synagogue catering to a predominantly German-speaking population, B’nai B’rith formed as a result of the male congregants’ desire to facilitate their greater integration into American society while continuing to promote what they saw as Judaism’s universal moral and ethical teachings. Many of the founders claimed membership in existing fraternal orders such [End Page 77] as the Freemasons and Odd Fellows and used their knowledge of lodge rules and rituals when creating their own group. Additionally, the founders’ participation in Anshe Chesed familiarized them with a European model of Reform Judaism through their rabbi, a product of both the German University system and modern rabbinical training, who encouraged his congregants to adhere to a more progressive and humanistic form of Jewish thought and practice. B’nai B’rith, then, became a space in which its members could devote themselves to promoting universal ideals of morality and brotherhood while operating in a Jewish environment that enabled members and, through B’nai B’rith’s efforts, Jews more generally, to better themselves socially and civically. Female congregants of New York City’s reform Temple Emanu-el familiar with B’nai B’rith created the UOTS in 1846 as a venue of their own, in which they could exert moral authority over their members and organizational identity. The women sought to combine benevolent duties such as charity with what they described as the “nobler goals of humanity,” a guiding mission which complimented that of B’nai B’rith. (46) Through their participation in the UOTS, the order’s members would expand upon Jewish women’s participation within civic life and foster a larger and more visible role for women within Jewish practice. While smaller than B’nai B’rith in numbers due to the women enacting more stringent membership requirements, both groups enjoyed expansion in the first few decades of their founding and appealed to an eager population of German-speaking Jews who sought membership in a fraternal order that appeared American in form, Jewish in membership, and universal in mission. Wilhelm provides great detail concerning the civic works of B’nai B’rith, demonstrating how its efforts helped facilitate its vision of bettering America’s Jewish community. From its founding, the order supported widows and orphans of its members and expanded this program to help finance and build hospitals and orphanages in locations across the country. Their projects not only provided care to Jews and, particularly in the case of hospitals, non-Jews, in need, but also offered assistance without the Christian missionizing common in most hospitals and orphanages of the time. Another important initiative that exemplified B’nai B’rith’s commitment to self-betterment and Jewish civic service was the creation of public libraries. Through providing access to books and sponsoring programs including lectures, musical offerings...