Feeding Window Research Articles

Four Weeks of 16/8 Time Restrictive Feeding in Endurance Trained Male Runners Decreases Fat Mass, without Affecting Exercise Performance.

Background: Time restricted Feeding (TRF) is a dietary pattern utilized by endurance athletes, but there is insufficient data regarding its effects on performance and metabolism in this population. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a 16/8 TRF dietary pattern on exercise performance in trained male endurance runners. Methods: A 4-week randomized crossover intervention was used to compare an 8-h TRF to a 12-h normal diet (ND) feeding window. Exercise training and dietary intake were similar across interventions. Runners completed a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan to assess body composition, a graded treadmill running test to assess substrate utilization, and ran a 10 km time trial to assess performance. Results: There was a significant decrease in fat mass in the TRF intervention (−0.8 ± 1.3 kg with TRF (p = 0.05), vs. +0.1 ± 4.3 kg with ND), with no significant change in fat-free mass. Exercise carbon dioxide production (VCO2) and blood lactate concentration were significantly lower with the TRF intervention (p ≤ 0.02). No significant changes were seen in exercise respiratory exchange ratio or 10 km time trial performance (−00:20 ± 3:34 min:s TRF vs. −00:36 ± 2:57 min:s ND). Conclusion: This investigation demonstrated that adherence to a 4-week 16/8 TRF dietary intervention decreased fat mass and maintained fat-free mass, while not affecting running performance, in trained male endurance runners.

The Window Matters: A Systematic Review of Time Restricted Eating Strategies in Relation to Cortisol and Melatonin Secretion.

Time-Restricted Eating is an eating pattern based on the circadian rhythm which limits daily food intake (usually to ≤12 h/day), unique in that no overt restriction is imposed on the quality, nor quantity, of food intake. This paper aimed to examine the effects of two patterns of TRE, traditional TRE, and Ramadan fasting, on two markers of circadian rhythm, cortisol and melatonin. PubMed and Web of Science were searched up to December 2020 for studies examining the effects of time restricted eating on cortisol and melatonin. Fourteen studies met our inclusion criteria. All Ramadan papers found statistically significant decrease in melatonin (p < 0.05) during Ramadan. Two out of the three Ramadan papers noted an abolishing of the circadian rhythm of cortisol (p < 0.05). The non-Ramadan TRE papers did not examine melatonin, and cortisol changes were mixed. In studies comparing TRE to control diets, Stratton et al. found increased cortisol levels in the non-TRE fasting group (p = 0.0018) and McAllister et al. noted no difference. Dinner-skipping resulted in significantly reduced evening cortisol and non-significantly raised morning cortisol. Conversely, breakfast skipping resulted in significantly reduced morning cortisol. This blunting indicates a dysfunctional HPA axis, and may be associated with poor cardio-metabolic outcomes. There is a paucity of research examining the effects of TRE on cortisol and melatonin. The contrasting effect of dinner and breakfast-skipping should be further examined to ascertain whether timing the feeding window indeed has an impact on circadian rhythmicity.

Time-restricted feeding is associated with mental health in elderly Italian adults

ABSTRACT In recent years, mental disorders have represented a relevant public health problem due to their deleterious effect on quality of life and the difficulty of timely diagnosis. The growing trends have been shown to be highly influenced by modern society, unhealthy lifestyle and harmful dietary habits. Not only the specific foods or dietary patterns have been hypothesized to play a role on mental health; also, temporal regulation of feeding and fasting has emerged as an innovative strategy to prevent and treat mental health disease. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the association between time-restricted feeding (TRF) and mental health outcomes including perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and sleep quality assessed in a cohort of southern Italian adults. Demographic and dietary characteristics of 1,572 adults living in southern Italy were analyzed. Food frequency questionnaires were used to calculate dietary intakes; participants were also asked what time, on average, they consumed their meals to calculate the eating window of time and identify those eating within 8 hours or less. Logistic regression analyses were performed to test the association between mental health outcomes. After adjusting for potential confounding factors, including adherence to the Mediterranean diet and having breakfast/dinner, no associations were found between TRF and mental health outcomes; however, when performing the analyses by age groups, individuals older than 70 years having a feeding time window of 8 hours were less likely to have signs of mental health distress [odds ratio (OR) = 0.14, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.03–0.65] compared to those having no feeding time restriction independently of diet quality; notably, adjusting for having breakfast nullified the association (OR = 0.13, 95% CI: 0.02–1.18), while adjusting for having dinner did not change it (OR = 0.14, 95% CI: 0.03–0.67). No further associations were found for specific mental health outcomes explored separately. In conclusion, restricting the daily time feeding window is associated with lower signs of mental health distress in individuals older than 70 years. Albeit preliminary, these findings on elderly individuals require further investigation using prospective design and an amended approach to control for fasting.

Beneficial Effects of Early Time-Restricted Feeding on Metabolic Diseases: Importance of Aligning Food Habits with the Circadian Clock.

The importance of metabolic health is a major societal concern due to the increasing prevalence of metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and various cardiovascular diseases. The circadian clock is clearly implicated in the development of these metabolic diseases. Indeed, it regulates physiological processes by hormone modulation, thus helping the body to perform them at the ideal time of day. Since the industrial revolution, the actions and rhythms of everyday life have been modified and are characterized by changes in sleep pattern, work schedules, and eating habits. These modifications have in turn lead to night shift, social jetlag, late-night eating, and meal skipping, a group of customs that causes circadian rhythm disruption and leads to an increase in metabolic risks. Intermittent fasting, especially the time-restricted eating, proposes a solution: restraining the feeding window from 6 to 10 h per day to match it with the circadian clock. This approach seems to improve metabolic health markers and could be a therapeutic solution to fight against metabolic diseases. This review summarizes the importance of matching life habits with circadian rhythms for metabolic health and assesses the advantages and limits of the application of time-restricted fasting with the objective of treating and preventing metabolic diseases.

Identification of factors influencing motivation to undertake time-restricted feeding in humans

The interaction between time of day and energy intake, termed chrono-nutrition, has received considerable recent interest. One aspect of chrono-nutrition with potential to benefit long-term cardio-metabolic health is time-restricted feeding (TRF). Current support for TRF primarily derives from animal research, although recent small-scale human studies indicate possible translational benefit. Whether free-living humans, however, can incorporate TRF into their daily lives is poorly understood. This study reports data from participants (n = 608) who completed an online questionnaire to investigate daily routine, likelihood of TRF incorporation within work vs free-days, and key considerations influencing TRF uptake. The majority of participants reported a typical daily feeding window (time between first and last energy intake) of between 10 and 14 h on workdays and free days, 62.7 and 65.5% respectively. Likelihood of adherence to TRF declined with an increase in the proposed restriction of the feeding window by 0.5 to 4-h per day. We then examined data from participants with a typical daily feeding window of 12+ h on workdays (n = 221) and free-days (n = 223) to investigate the likelihood of using TRF, and the most important considerations in making this decision. Of these participants, (n = 132) on workdays and (n = 125) on free days would likely reduce their feeding window by 3-h. Multiple regression analysis revealed that key considerations determining the likelihood of adopting TRF were: cost, time availability, and perceived health benefits (on workdays); wake time, bed time, time availability, motivation to change and perceived health benefits (on free-days). These data provide novel information regarding public attitudes towards TRF and highlight important aspects to be considered when translating controlled laboratory studies to public dietary advice.

Avaliação do protocolo de Jejum Intermitente no tratamento de sobrepeso e obesidade: uma revisão integrativa

A obesidade, é o acúmulo excessivo de gordura corporal, que acarreta prejuízos à saúde dos indivíduos, tais como dificuldade respiratória, problemas dermatológicos e distúrbios do aparelho locomotor e favorece o surgimento de doenças crônicas não transmissíveis potencialmente letais. São várias as estratégias e ferramentas ao qual o profissional nutricionista dispõe para realização do tratamento de sobrepeso e obesidade, dentre elas, o jejum intermitente, que é um protocolo de dieta que visa alternar períodos de ingestão alimentar e jejum. O objetivo é fazer com que o corpo utilize os estoques de gordura e com isso haja uma perda de massa gorda, os períodos em que a alimentação é permitida são chamados de janelas de alimentação. O estudo é uma revisão integrativa da literatura em Nutrição, com o objetivo de revisar os estudos que avaliaram a aplicabilidade do protocolo de jejum intermitente no tratamento de sobrepeso e obesidade em indivíduos adultos, com ênfase aos aspectos de perda de peso e melhora dos marcadores biológicos de saúde. Foram pesquisados e examinados 10 artigos científicos com maior número de produção no ano de 2018. Os artigos analisados apontaram que a Restrição Energética Intermitente (IER) é uma alternativa dietética eficaz para promover a perda de peso em adultos com sobrepeso / obesidade no curto prazo, desta forma, pode ser utilizado no tratamento de forma segura. Os resultados mostram que o IER pode resultar em perda de peso em adultos com sobrepeso e obesidade comparável a Restrição Energética Diária (DER) tradicional.

The Effect of 6- h and 8-h Time Restricted Feeding on Body Weight, Glucoregulatory Factors, IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 in Adults with Obesity

Abstract Objectives Time restricted feeding is a novel approach to intermittent fasting which includes a 6–10 hour feeding window and a 14–18 hour fasting window daily. Some forms of intermittent fasting have resulted in improvement in IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 in mice. These factors may affect cancer risk and cancer progression after diagnosis. However, effect in humans remains unknown. This exploratory analysis examined the effect of 12 weeks of 8-hour time-restricted feeding (10:00–18:00) and 8 weeks of 6-hour time-restricted feeding (12:00–18:00) versus a control in adults with obesity. Methods Participants with obesity (n = 24) participated in either an 8-h time restricted feeding intervention (ad libitum feeding between 10:00–6:00 pm) for 12 weeks or a 6-h time restricted feeding intervention (ad libitum feeding between 1:00–700 pm) for 8 weeks. Data for two time-restricted feeding trials were combined for this exploratory analysis and compared to a no intervention control group with obesity (n = 8). Weight loss, glucose regulatory factors, IGF-1 and IGFBP3 were measured. Results Body weight decreased significantly more in the 6-h (−2.82 ± 0.05 kg) and the 8-h (−2.77 ± 0.50 kg) groups than the controls (p &amp;lt; 0.001). Fat mass decreased significantly more in the 6-h (−1.5 ± 0.2 kg) and the 8-h (−1.5 ± 0.4 kg) groups than the controls (p = 0.016). Lean mass decreased significantly more in the 6-h group (−1.8 ± 0.2 kg) than the 8-h (p = .005) and the controls (p = .004). HOMA-IR decreased significantly more in the 8-h group (−0.3 ± 0.1 units) than the control group (p = 0.38). There was no difference in HOMA-IR (measure of insulin resistance) between the 6-h group (−.01 ± 0.3 units) and either the 8-h or the control groups (p = 0.91 and p = 0.86). Fasting insulin decreased significantly more in the 8-h group (−1.2 ± 0.6 uIU/ml) than control group (p = .033). There was no difference in change in insulin between the 8-h and 6-h groups (p = .952). No changes were seen in glucose, IGF-1 (8-h: −3.04 ± 13.49 ng/mL, 6-h: −0.42 ± 16.96 ng/mL) or IGFBP-3 (8-h: 0.17 ± 0.15 ng/mL, 6-h: 0.18 ± 0.07 ng/mL). Conclusions These findings suggest that 6-h and 8-h time-restricted feeding produce mild weight and fat loss as well as glucoregulatory improvement. It is unclear if time restricted feeding effects the cancer promoting biomarkers, IGF-1 and IGFBP3. Funding Sources University of Illinois at Chicago.

The Effects of Time Restricted Feeding and Exercise on Performance and Body Composition in Healthy Mice

Intermittent fasting refers to a period of unregulated caloric consumption paired with a period of complete, or heavily restricted, caloric consumption. One version of this involves splitting the day into a consumption period and a restricted period, known as time‐restricted feeding (TRF). TRF is shown to improve metabolic health and positively affect mitochondria, independent of weight loss. Aerobic exercise is also shown to improve these parameters; however, the combination of intermittent fasting and aerobic exercise in a healthy system has not been examined. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of the feeding window time in relation to exercise on body weight, body fat percentage, lean mass, and run to exhaustion. Healthy, young mice were placed in one of three groups: ad libitum control group (CON), 18‐hour fasting with a 6‐hour feeding starting immediately post exercise (IM), and 18‐hour fasting with a 6 hour feeding starting 5 hours post exercise (DG). The mice ran 5 days a week, 1 hour a day, for a total of 8 weeks at the beginning of the dark cycle. A run to exhaustion (RTE) was conducted at week 0 and week 8 of the study. Mice were weighed twice weekly and underwent an MRI once a week. Data are presented as mean ± SD. A repeated measures two‐way ANOVA was used to compare groups across time. Significance was set a p&lt; 0.05. There were no significant differences between RTE times at week 0 (p= 0.52). There was a main effect of training across all groups in RTE (p=0.04) with a 14±43% increase in RTE in the CON, 13±33% increase in IM, and 55±86% increase in DG. There was a significant increase in body fat in the DG compared to CON at week 2 (CON 7.1±4.5% DG 13.4±2.3%, p=0.002), week 3 (CON 7.2±4.8% DG 11.6±2.6, p=0.02), and week 4 (CON 7.0±4.5% DG 11.6±1.9%, p=0.006); however, there was no difference between groups at week 8. There was a significant effect of time on body weight and lean mass, demonstrating normal growth (p&lt;0.0001). TRF did not have a significant effect (p=0.24) on body weight, however there was a significant decrease in lean mass in TRF groups at week 8 (CON 24.7±2.2g, IM 22.8±2.1g, DG 22.7±1.8g, p=0.03). Although there was a small decrease in lean mass, TRF did not lead to a change in performance as measured by RTE and timing of fasting did not impact either RTE or body composition. This suggests that performance may not be substantially impacted in individuals using TRF, regardless of the timing of the feeding window.Support or Funding InformationFunded by the University of Memphis School of Health Studies

Time-restricted eating effects on performance, immune function, and body composition in elite cyclists: a randomized controlled trial

BackgroundAlthough there is substantial interest in intermittent fasting as a dietary approach in active individuals, information regarding its effects in elite endurance athletes is currently unavailable. The present parallel randomized trial investigated the effects of a particular intermittent fasting approach, called time-restricted eating (TRE), during 4 weeks of high-level endurance training.MethodsSixteen elite under-23 cyclists were randomly assigned either to a TRE group or a control group (ND). The TRE group consumed 100% of its estimated daily energy needs in an 8-h time window (from 10:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m.) whilst energy intake in the ND group was distributed in 3 meals consumed between 7:00 a.m. and 9:00 p.m. Fat and fat-free mass were estimated by bioelectrical impedance analysis and VO2max and basal metabolism by indirect gas analyzer. In addition, blood counts, anabolic hormones (i.e. free testosterone, IGF-1) and inflammatory markers (i.e. IL-6, TNF-α) were assessed.ResultsTRE reduced body weight (− 2%; p = 0.04) and fat mass percentage (− 1.1%; p = 0.01) with no change in fat-free mass. Performance tests showed no significant differences between groups, however the peak power output/body weight ratio (PPO/BW) improved in TRE group due to weight loss (p = 0.02). Free testosterone and IGF-1 decreased significantly (p = 0.01 and p = 0.03 respectively) in TRE group. Leucocyte count decreased in ND group (p = 0.02) whilst the neutrophils-to-lymphocytes ratio (NLR) decreased significantly (p = 0.03) in TRE group.ConclusionsOur results suggest that a TRE program with an 8-h feeding window elicits weight loss, improves body composition and increases PPO/BW in elite cyclists. TRE could also be beneficial for reducing inflammation and may have a protective effect on some components of the immune system. Overall, TRE could be considered as a component of a periodized nutrition plan in endurance athletes.Trial registrationThis trial was retrospectively registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT04320784 on 25 March 2020.

Safety of 8-h Time Restricted Feeding in Adults with Obesity (FS18-05-19)

ObjectivesTime restricted feeding (TRF) is a novel approach to intermittent fasting which includes a 4–10 hour feeding window and a 14–20 hour fasting window daily. However, the safety of TRF has yet to be determined. This study was undertaken to determine the effects of TRF on certain safety parameters, including: eating disorder symptoms, body image perception, complete blood count, resting metabolic rate, and frequency of adverse events, in adults with obesity. MethodsAdults with obesity (n = 23) participated in an 8-h TRF intervention (ad libitum feeding between 10:00 to 18:00 h, water fasting between 18:00 to 10:00 h) for 12 weeks. ResultsBody weight significantly (P < 0.001) decreased by 2.6 ± 0.5% after 12 weeks of TRF. Resting metabolic rate did not change over time (baseline: 1431 ± 62 kcal/d; week 1: 1393 ± 82 kcal/d; week 12: 1318 ± 61 kcal/d). Self-reported adverse events (gastrointestinal or neurological) did not change over time. Eating disorder symptoms including depression, binge eating, purgative behavior, fear of fatness, restrictive eating, and avoidance of forbidden foods, did not change from baseline to week 12. Concerns about body size and shape remained unchanged. Cognitive restraint, uncontrolled eating and emotional eating did not change over time. There were no significant changes in any of the complete blood count parameters from baseline to week 12. ConclusionsThis study is the first to show that TRF is a safe diet therapy for weight loss as it does not negatively impact eating disorder symptoms, eating behaviors, resting metabolic rate, or measures of overall health, such as complete blood count. Funding SourcesUniversity of Illinois Chicago Campus Research Board Pilot Grant; NIH T32HL007909.

Effects of Time Restricted Feeding on Resting Energy Expenditure and Respiratory Quotient

Time restricted feeding (TRF) is a form of dietary intake which limits the feeding time in a day. Researchers have observed weight loss and improved body composition as the original motivators for investigation of TRF. With a variation in energy intake during TRF, resting energy expenditure (REE) has been shown to increase with high caloric consumption. An increase in REE is also associated with an increase in fat free mass and physical activity. Respiratory quotient (RQ) demonstrates the ratio between CO2 production and O2 uptake, determining substrate utilization at rest. RQ has been shown to change through altered macronutrient intake. Studies indicate, a diet high in carbohydrate intake increases RQ whereas diets high in fat intake have been shown to lower RQ. RQ has also been found to decrease when subjects partake in endurance training. PURPOSE: The intent of this study was to determine the impact TRF may have on REE and RQ. METHODS: Thirty-four apparently healthy adults ages 19-51 participated in 4 weeks non-TRF and 4 weeks of TRF. The feeding window for the TRF was a nine-hour period. Participants were provided journals over the course of the study to self-record caloric intake, exercise type, and duration. REE and RQ were measured using a metabolic cart initially, after 4 weeks of non-TRF, and 4 weeks after TRF. Data was analyzed using IBM SPSS statistics. RESULTS: RQ increased significantly between pretest (0.721±0.015) and TRF testing (0.808±0.02) (p=0.01). No significance was found between non-TRF and TRF. REE had no significant difference between any of the three testing periods (p=0.233). There was no significant change in caloric intake throughout the testing (p=0.94). A significant decrease was found in total exercise days between non-TRF and TRF periods (p=0.023). CONCLUSION: This study did not find a significant change in REE during TRF. The increase in RQ may be attributed to increases in carbohydrate intake. Caloric intake was hypothesized to increase the first couple of days due to the time-restricted nature, but overall was not hypothesized to have a significant impact on energy intake or REE. Future studies should investigate the impact of TRF on macronutrient intake and carbohydrate utilization at rest.

SAT-096 Later Timing of Energy Intake Associates with Higher Fat Mass in Adults with Overweight and Obesity

Background Emerging literature suggests that later timing of energy intake and sleep are related to obesity (1-3). However, few studies have assessed both meal and sleep timing in adults with obesity, and it is not clear whether eating later in the day is associated with shorter sleep duration or higher adiposity. Understanding whether temporal feeding and sleep patterns are associated with body composition will help in the design of novel weight loss and maintenance interventions aimed at altering the timing of lifestyle behaviors. Methods Thirty-two overweight and obese adults (90% female sex, age 36.4±6.4 years, and BMI=33.4±5.5 kg/m2) were recruited to participate in an ongoing weight loss trial comparing daily caloric restriction to time-restricted feeding. Participants simultaneously wore an activPAL accelerometer on the thigh and an Actiwatch on the non-dominant wrist for 7 days in a free-living environment to assess waking sedentary behavior and nighttime sleep, respectively. A cell phone application (MealLogger) was used to photograph and timestamp all caloric events during the 7-day period to determine daily feeding duration, which was verified using a continuous glucose monitor. Assessments were performed at baseline and will be repeated at 12 weeks following completion of the weight loss intervention. Correlation analyses were performed on baseline data to determine associations among the duration and timing of daily energy intake and sleep. Results are reported as mean±SD. Results On average, participants consumed energy over 11.0±1.9 hours during the day and slept for 7.2±0.7 hours at night. The clock time of the last caloric event averaged 7:54pm ± 93 min. Later meal timing (midpoint of the feeding window) was positively correlated with later sleep timing (midpoint of the sleep window, r = 0.67, P = <0.0001) but did not impact sleep duration. A later feeding midpoint correlated with higher BMI (r = 0.49, P = 0.005) and fat mass (r = 0.55, P = 0.001). Conclusions We used a novel set of methods to show that individuals with overweight and obesity may be eating later into the day. In addition, later meal timing was associated with higher BMI and fat mass. Future studies are needed to compare the timing of energy intake and sleep in normal weight versus obese individuals. These findings support ongoing studies by our group investigating whether restricting energy intake to the early part of the day lowers obesity risk. References (1) McHill et al., Am J Clin Nutr. 2017 Nov;106(5):1213-1219. (2) Baron et al., Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011 Jul;19(7):1374-81. (3) Garaulet, Gomez-Abellan, Physiol Behav. 2014 Jul;134:44-50. Sources of Research Support: This research has received funding from the NIH

Infant Complementary Feeding of Prebiotics for theMicrobiome and Immunity.

Complementary feeding transitions infants from a milk-based diet to solid foods, providing essential nutrients to the infant and the developing gut microbiome while influencing immune development. Some of the earliest microbial colonisers readily ferment select oligosaccharides, influencing the ongoing establishment of the microbiome. Non-digestible oligosaccharides in prebiotic-supplemented formula and human milk oligosaccharides promote commensal immune-modulating bacteria such as Bifidobacterium, which decrease in abundance during weaning. Incorporating complex, bifidogenic, non-digestible carbohydrates during the transition to solid foods may present an opportunity to feed commensal bacteria and promote balanced concentrations of beneficial short chain fatty acid concentrations and vitamins that support gut barrier maturation and immunity throughout the complementary feeding window.

Behavioural adaptation of crossbred cows in automatic concentrate feeding station

The present study evaluated the adaptation behaviour of crossbred cows (46) in Automatic Concentrate Feeding Station (ACFS). The adaptation behaviour was studied over a period of 6 weeks. The percentage of adaptation was calculated based on the average concentrate allotted divided by average number of rewarded visits. After adaptation, duration of rewarded and unrewarded visits under three feeding windows (FW1: 12.01 AM - 7.59 AM; FW2: 8.00 AM - 3.59 PM; FW3: 4.00 PM -11.59 PM) in 2 ACFS (FS1 &amp; FS2) was studied over a period of 72 h using software. Significant difference in the duration of rewarded visits was observed between stations (FS1 and FS2) and between feeding windows (FW1 and FW3 differed with FW2). The average duration of rewarded visit was 247.3±7.97 sec, 192.46±7.29 sec and 239.47±8.21 sec during FW1, FW2 and FW3, respectively, while the corresponding values for unrewarded visits were 44.49±3.77 sec, 46.73±2.9 sec and 59.84±3.32 sec, respectively. Overall mean duration of time spent for a single visit in rewarded and unrewarded visits was 218.56±3.82 sec and 49.93±1.85 sec, respectively, for 72 h irrespective of feeding stations and feeding windows. It was concluded that adaptation period of crossbred cows with automatic concentrate feeding station was shorter for older animals than younger ones, and the duration of unrewarded visits influenced the learning behaviour of animals.

Comparison of time-restricted and ad libitum self-feeding on the growth, feeding behavior and daily digestive enzyme profiles of Atlantic salmon

Although it has been hypothesized that a predictable feeding regime in animals allows physiological variables to be adjusted to maximize nutrient utilization and, hence, better growth performance, the assumption has rarely been tested. This study compares the effects of time-restricted versus free access self-feeding on the growth, feeding behavior and daily digestive enzyme rhythms of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). In an experiment that lasted 6 weeks, fish (109.9 g) were divided into two groups: group 1 had free access to a self-feeder (FA); group 2 received three meals per day (2 h per meal) at dawn, midday and dusk via a time-restricted self-feeder (TR). At the end of the experiment, the fish were sampled every 3 h over a 24-h period. The results showed that the TR fish quickly synchronized their feeding behavior to the feeding window and their blood glucose showed a significant postprandial increase, while FA fish displayed no statistically significant rhythms (P>0.05). Pepsin activity of TR fish also showed a significant daily rhythm (P 0.05). In conclusion, the study failed to confirm a link between the entrainment of daily digestive enzyme profiles and growth performance, with the TR group showing comparatively poor blood glucose regulation.

Time-restricted self-feeding causes fin damage of Atlantic salmon

The way in which the feed is delivered mainly influences the growth rates and feed efficiency. Restricting the time during which food is available from a self-feeder may help to regulate production parameters, but may also increase competition. In this article, the effects of time-restricted self-feeding on growth, feeding behavior and fin index Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) were studied over the course of 6 weeks. A total of 150 fish were divided into two groups in triplicates: One group had free access to self-feeders (FA), and the other group received three meals (2 h per meal) restricted to dawn, midday and dusk a day in light phase (TR). The results showed that there were no significant differences in production parameters (specific growth rate 1.33 ± 0.21 and 1.40 ± 0.21 % day−1, for TR and FA, respectively), body composition and nutrient retention efficiencies between treatments, while the FA fish had significantly higher food wastage (0.79 ± 0.06 vs. 0.56 ± 0.10 %) compared with the TR fish. In the course of the experiment, the TR fish gradually improved the accuracy of trigger actuation; in 1–2, 3–4 and 5–6 weeks, 61, 68 and 80 % trigger actuations happened in the feeding window. Nevertheless, there was a significant decrease in the dorsal fin index found in the TR fish as the experiment proceeded (9.83 ± 0.15 and 8.56 ± 0.04 for the beginning and end, respectively; P < 0.05). The results indicate that time-restricted self-feeding causes fin damage on Atlantic salmon but has little effect on their growth. One should cautiously apply a complex self-feeding regime during production.

Intermittent Fasting as a Novel Treatment Approach for Patients Treated with Atypical Antipsychotics

Meta-analyses often find similarities in tolerance between first and second generation antipsychotics. In terms of major barriers to treatment adherence, the extrapyramidal symptoms associated with the first generation antipsychotics have be replaced by the devastating association of weight gain and metabolic syndrome. Dietary and exercise prescriptions are currently being recommended for patients beginning treatment with atypical antipsychotics, although the details of this intervention are often left unclear. Intermittent fasting through time-restricted feeding windows is a practical lifestyle modification that has been shown to increase insulin sensitivity, prevent obesity and decrease risk of type II diabetes, thus making it a useful tool in the prevention of common metabolic issues surrounding atypical antipsychotics. In this review, we have combined the findings from the CATIE and CUtLASS trials with recent research on intermittent fasting and submit that the effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics may be enhanced via reductions in metabolic abnormalities associated with their usage. Our aim is to highlight intermittent fasting as a supplemental protocol to combat the metabolic consequences most prevalent with antipsychotics and to outline a prescription of how to utilize intermittent fasting in this patient population.

Integrating models to investigate critical phenological overlaps in complex ecological interactions: the mountain pine beetle-fungus symbiosis.

The fates of individual species are often tied to synchronization of phenology, however, few methods have been developed for integrating phenological models involving linked species. In this paper, we focus on mountain pine beetle (MPB, Dendroctonus ponderosae) and its two obligate mutualistic fungi, Grosmannia clavigera and Ophiostoma montium. Growth rates of all three partners are driven by temperature, and their idiosyncratic responses affect interactions at important life stage junctures. One critical phase for MPB-fungus symbiosis occurs just before dispersal of teneral (new) adult beetles, when fungi are acquired and transported in specialized structures (mycangia). Before dispersal, fungi must capture sufficient spatial resources within the tree to ensure contact with teneral adults and get packed into mycangia. Mycangial packing occurs at an unknown time during teneral feeding. We adapt thermal models predicting fungal growth and beetle development to predict overlap between the competing fungi and MPB teneral adult feeding windows and emergence. We consider a spectrum of mycangial packing strategies and describe them in terms of explicit functions with unknown parameters. Rates of growth are fixed by laboratory data, the unknown parameters describing various packing strategies, as well as the degree to which mycangial growth is slowed in woody tissues as compared to agar, are determined by maximum likelihood and two years of field observations. At the field location used, the most likely fungus acquisition strategy for MPB was packing mycangia just prior to emergence. Estimated model parameters suggested large differences in the relative growth rates of the two fungi in trees at the study site, with the most likely model estimating that G. clavigera grew approximately twenty-five times faster than O. montium under the bark, which is completely unexpected in comparison with observed fungal growth on agar.

A circumferential antenna ellipsoidal cavity type MPCVD reactor developed for diamond film deposition

In this paper, a new circumferential antenna ellipsoidal cavity type MPCVD reactor possessing advantages of both an ellipsoidal cavity type and a multimode non-cylindrical cavity type MPCVD reactor is described. An ellipsoidal cavity is adopted as its deposition chamber and a circumferential antenna is used in its microwave coupling channel. A ring-shaped quartz window located within the microwave coupling channel has replaced the quartz bell jar that has been used by a conventional ellipsoidal cavity type MPCVD reactor. Therefore, input microwave power of the reactor will be no longer constrained by the quartz bell jar. At the same time, sealing reliability of the microwave window is improved. Using the new reactor, a 2-inch diameter freestanding diamond film has been synthesized at 6kW input power, and Raman spectroscopy analyses indicate that the diamond film prepared using the new reactor is of high quality.Resonant electric field patterns of different sized ellipsoidal cavities were systematically simulated and analyzed. Based on the simulation, a novel circumferential antenna ellipsoid cavity type MPCVD reactor was built. The new MPCVD reactor combines the advantages of an ellipsoidal cavity and a circumferential antenna. Also a ring-shaped quartz window is adopted to replace a conventionally used quartz bell jar as its microwave feeding window. Such a design makes the reactor get rid of the limitation in microwave power levels resulting from usage of the bell jar. Two-inch high quality diamond films have been deposited using the newly built reactor at high input microwave power.

Impact of elevated CO2 and increased temperature on Japanese beetle herbivory

To examine how the major elements of global change affect herbivory in agroecosystems, a multifactorial experiment was conducted where soybeans were grown at two levels of carbon dioxide and temperature, including those predicted for 2050, under otherwise normal field conditions. Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica Newman) were enclosed on foliage for 24 h, after which the beetle survivorship, total and per capita leaf consumption, and leaf protease inhibitor activity were measured. The direct effect of temperature on beetle consumption and survivorship also was measured under controlled environmental conditions. No differences in total foliage consumption were observed; however, beetles forced to feed at elevated temperature in the field demonstrated greater per capita consumption and reduced survivorship compared to beetles feeding at ambient temperature. Survivorship was also greater for beetles that consumed foliage grown under elevated CO2 , but there were no interactive effects of CO2 and temperature, and no differences in leaf chemistry were resolved. Leaf consumption by beetles increased strongly with increasing temperature up to ∼37° C, above which increased mortality caused a precipitous decrease in consumption. An empirical model based on the temperature dependence of leaf consumption and flight suggests that the 3.5°C increase in temperature predicted for 2050 will increase the optimal feeding window for the Japanese beetle by 290%. Elevated temperature and CO2 operating independently have the potential to greatly increase foliage damage to soybean by chewing insects, such as Popillia japonica, potentially affecting crop yields.