In this work, we have investigated supercritical CO2(scCO2)-assisted spray drying for the production of drug particles using ketoprofen as a model Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API). We have used an experimental and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations approach to explore the hydrodynamics and particle formation pathways of a scCO2-assisted spray drying. The Eulerian-Lagrangian CFD framework was developed to describe the scCO2-assisted atomization of a drug solution through a micro-orifice two-fluid nozzle structure. The commercial CFD code, Ansys FLUENT (2024R2) was used. The relevant thermodynamic sub-models were integrated via user-defined functions. Experimental validation and calibration were guided by real-time laser-diffraction-based particle sizing methods as well as offline dynamic light scattering measurements. The comparison of simulated and experimentally measured average particle sizing data showed good agreement across three different feed solution concentrations at an injection pressure of 110bar and feed solution flow rate of 1mL/min. The developed model offers a cost-effective tool for design, simulation and optimization of relevant drug particle production setups.

Slaughterhouse wastewater (SW) contains high organic matter and nutrients, requiring sustainable treatment methods like forward osmosis (FO). This study evaluates the performance of four membranes: M1 (cellulose triacetate), M2 (M1 with carbon nanotubes), M3 (cellulose triacetate/diacetate), and M4 (M3 with carbon nanotubes) for treating SW. It reports the first-time use of CNTs in a hybrid membrane (CTA/CDA) for FO applications. Characterization showed that CNTs improved the mechanical and structural properties of M1, increasing the contact angle from 68 to 75°C and roughness from 499.59 to 542.57nm. However, for M3, the addition of CNTs in M4 decreased the contact angle from 88 to 77° and roughness from 773.088 to 620.001nm. While CNTs enhanced hydrophilicity, they reduced permeability and fouling resistance due to fewer water transport channels. FTIR analysis revealed distinct stretching patterns correlating with variations in contact angles and membrane performance. The evaluation of membranes in forward osmosis (FO) comprised four phases. In Phase 1, membrane M3 excelled with 91.6% water removal and 0.32 LMH flux using 0.5M MgCl₂, outperforming M4 at 80.84% and 0.28 LMH due to Mg²⁺ ion accumulation in M4. Phase 2 confirmed M3's superiority with MgCl₂ among the four 0.5M draw solutions. In Phase 3, M3 demonstrated an enhancement of 93.76% and 0.33 LMH with a 1M solution., while M4's performance reached 90.91% with 1M NH₄HCO₃. Overall, low water flux was attributed to the lower circulation rates of feed and draw solutions. Phase 4 showed that M3's water flux supported the growth of Dunaliella salina, while M4's lower-salinity flux hindered it. This study explores the potential of hybrid membranes reinforced with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for forward osmosis in treating slaughterhouse wastewater. It reveals a gap in data regarding CTA and CDA blends with CNTs, marking this as a new research area. The findings indicate that CNTs do not enhance the performance of hybrid membranes for this application; therefore, cost-effective membrane (M3) using recyclable solutes like NH₄HCO₃ present a promising solution for sustainable wastewater treatment.

ABSTRACT The extraction of Co from an industrially treated solution produced from spent NMC9.5.5 lithium-ion batteries was investigated using saponified Cyanex 272. The phase behavior of a NaOH (2, 5 or 10 M)–Cyanex 272–Isopar L system was studied to select suitable conditions for saponification. A Winsor II region, a monophasic microemulsion area, and a zone with a biphasic system composed of a diluent-rich and a diluent-depleted phase were identified. Both the extractant and NaOH concentration were found to impact the self-assembly of the system, whereas increasing the temperature from 21 to 40°C did not result in any noticeable macroscopic effect. 10 M NaOH solution was selected for saponification. About 95% of Co was extracted from the feed solution using 45% saponified 0.3 M Cyanex 272 in single-stage extraction (pH = 5.5 ± 0.1). The McCabe–Thiele method showed to be inaccurate in determining the number of counter-current stages when the saponified solvent was used. Two stages were instead predicted for extracting Co using a non-saponified solvent maintaining the pH equal to 5.5 in each stage. Pseudo counter-current tests were performed using both saponified and non-saponified solvents. The results showed similar Co extraction (>99%) but different pH profiles in the cascades.

Membrane distillation crystallization (MDCr) has emerged as a promising technology to produce inorganic crystals from various feed solutions. MDCr leverages the benefits of membrane distillation (MD), including reduced membrane fouling, operation under waste heat or solar energy while facilitating high-purity crystal formation. This study provides a comprehensive operational assessment of MDCr and the governing mechanisms. The investigation emphasized the influence of temperature gradient, membrane characteristics and feed composition on the processes of supersaturation, nucleation and crystal growth. Attention was focused on the formation of the crystals, and the polymorphs' selectivity influenced by process configuration. Practical applications are discussed across inorganic materials, food and pharmaceutical industries, where MDCr shows potential for recovery of functional crystals. Despite promising application, MDCr remains affected by membrane fouling, wetting, and energy demand, which impact fouling, supersaturation and crystal growth dynamics. The role of in-situ monitoring, modelling and process control is identified to ensure reproducibility and scale-up. The findings show that process optimization and coupling of heat and mass transfer promote the formation of tailored crystalline materials from complex feed solutions. However, this process requires standardized methods, real-time analysis and techno-economic assessment to accelerate the MDCr deployment in the current industrial operations. • Mechanistic understanding of supersaturation, nucleation and crystal grow in MDCr. • Systematic evaluation of fouling, wetting and membrane material limiting MDCr's sustainability. • Risk identification of MDCr application linked to fluorinated membrane materials. • Defining the MDCr future research directions including AI-assisted process and smart membranes

Novel air gap membrane absorption structure for ammonium salt crystallization.

X-ray reflectivity and fluorescence study of foulant monolayers for prediction of organic fouling and inorganic scaling during membrane filtration.

This work represents a paradigm breakthrough in the design of compact desalination systems by offering the first direct integration of thermoelectric elements into a multi-stage air gap membrane distillation (TE-MS-AGMD) module. Herein, the novelty lies in the dual functionality of the thermoelectric element: it simultaneously serves as a heat pump for latent heat recovery and as an integrated thermal energy source, eliminating the need for separate heat exchangers to preheat feed solution and external refrigeration systems for vapor condensation. This innovative arrangement resolves the limitations of current MD practices by enabling internal heat recovery across multiple stages while maintaining a minimal footprint. A comprehensive experimental investigation evaluated the influence of key operational parameters—energy input, average operating temperature, temperature gradient, and number of distillation stages—on system performance. Results demonstrate that the three-stage TE-MS-AGMD system, with a membrane area of 96.4 cm 2 per stage and an energy input of 40 W, stabilizes at an average temperature of 64.9°C, achieving a maximum permeate water flux of 5.7 kg/m 2 h with a corresponding Specific Energy Consumption (SEC) of 0.73 kWh/kg. At optimized conditions with reduced power input of 10 W, the system reaches a minimum SEC of 0.52 kWh/kg alongside a gain output ratio (GOR) of approximately 1.3. The obtained performance metrics, combined with the system's compact and integrated design, could bestow significant potential for sustainable, decentralized seawater desalination applications, particularly in off-grid and remote locations where conventional multi-component systems are impractical. • Novel TE-MS-AGMD system integrates thermoelectric heat recovery directly • Achieved minimum SEC of 0.52 kWh/kg with three-stage configuration • GOR of 1.3 demonstrates efficient latent heat recovery across stages • Compact design eliminates external heat exchanger and refrigeration system

The Smackover Formation brines in southern Arkansas contain a large quantity of lithium, a critical resource for electric vehicle batteries and the global energy transition. To extract the lithium, efficient downstream enrichment technologies are urgently needed. Methods for direct lithium extraction are being explored, followed by further purification and concentration of the lithium salt solution, such as using reverse osmosis, which is energy intensive. Here we use reduced graphene oxide (RGO) membrane-based forward osmosis (FO) as an environment-friendly and near zero-energy input method to concentrate lithium brine. In the FO tests, a saturated NaCl solution serves as a draw solution and either a dilute lithium nitrate (LiNO3) solution (50.4 mM) or an artificial lithium brine (1.00 M NaCl + 12.0 mM LiNO3) as a feed solution, where LiNO3 is selected to mimics the typical LiCl component in lithium brine. Because nitrates have a unique absorption feature at ∼300 nm, their concentrations in both the feed and draw solutions can be monitored by a facile ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectral method. For the dilute LiNO3 solution, a rejection rate is determined to be 97.9 ± 0.1%, with a water flux of 6.2 ± 0.2 L/hm2. For the artificial brine, a rejection rate of 88.4 ± 0.1% and a water flux of 5.0 ± 0.2 L/hm2 are observed. With further optimization, this forward osmosis approach could provide a more energy-efficient method for lithium salt enrichment, supporting sustainable lithium extraction from Smackover brines.

Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) is acknowledged as an important biomass feedstock for bioethanol production. However, the by-products of lucerne biorefinery may lead to environmental burdens, especially the deproteinzed effluent (brown juice). In this work, an integrating technology of foam separation and aqueous two-phase extraction was developed to recover soluble white proteins (SWP) from discarded brown juice. First, foam separation was used to isolate SWP from discarded brown juice. Under the optimal operating conditions obtained by response surface methodology (RSM), enrichment ratio (E) and recovery percentage (R) of SWP were 2.96 ± 0.17 and 97.85 ± 1.87%, respectively. In order to overcome the paradox between E and R, the foamate had been prepared into aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) using PEG and (NH4)2SO4. The suitable molar mass of PEG and pH were 2000 and 6.5, respectively. When PEG-(NH4)2SO4 mass ratio was 0.54, the partition coefficient of SWP in ATPS reached 4.21 ± 0.11. Subsequently, foam separation was conducted once again by using above ATPS as the feeding solution. Under the optimal operating conditions, E and R of SWP were 10.47 ± 0.25 and 93.58 ± 1.64%, respectively. The total E and R of SWP from the integrating technology of foam separation and aqueous two-phase extraction were 31.21 ± 3.80 and 91.57 ± 3.32%, respectively.

ABSTRACT Treating complex wastewater requires advanced desalination technologies that can overcome the performance limitations of conventional methods. This study proposes a multi‐energy cooperative utilization strategy for surface heating membrane distillation (SHMD) using a dual‐functional composite heating membrane. The prepared NF@h‐BN@O‐MWCNTs membrane integrates the functions of a heater and a spacer, enabling complementary and synergistic utilization of electrical and solar energy. Under combined energy input, the single‐stage system achieved a water flux of 14.0 kg m − 2 h − 1 and a heat utilization efficiency (HUE) of 0.31, while maintaining a stable ion rejection rate of > 99.99% for both scaling‐prone and high‐salinity feed solutions. Moreover, the system demonstrated stable heating characteristics during continuous operation for over 60 h. By emulating a three‐stage cascade system with sensible heat recovery, the water flux in the third stage was further increased to 25.4 kg m − 2 h − 1 under an operating temperature of 80°C, and the overall average HUE reached 0.48, highlighting the great potential of heat recovery in SHMD configurations. This work offers insights into material design, multi‐energy synergy, and heat recovery strategies for SHMD systems, providing a feasible pathway toward their future application in sustainable water treatment.

In the current work, the use of carbide-derived carbon (CDC) as a novel adsorbent to remove lead (Pb2+ ions) from water is presented for the first time. The effect of different adsorption factors, including CDC dose, adsorption contact time, and lead concentration, was studied. The CDC adsorbent was characterized by using advanced characterization techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analyzer and zeta potential measurement. It was observed that CDC showed a BET surface area of 1597.15 m2/g and showed a point-of-zero charge (PZC) at pH 6. The batch adsorption experiments showed that CDC has a high removal efficiency of 98.9% for Pb2+ ions at CDC dose of 6.25 mg/L. It was shown that adsorption kinetic is very fast and 98% of lead removal was reached just in five minutes adsorption time. The adsorption data were fitted to the Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, and Sips isotherms, which showed that the adsorption process follows the Langmuir isotherm with a regression value of 0.9302. The adsorption of Pb2+ ions onto CDC showed a maximum adsorption capacity of 89.16 mg/g. Moreover, the experimental adsorption data were fitted to pseudo-first order, pseudo-second order, the Elovich model, intraparticle diffusion, and liquid film diffusion, kinetic models and the experimental adsorption results were consistent with the pseudo-second order model, with a regression value of 0.9999. The thermodynamic study indicated that the adsorption is spontaneous at temperatures of 25, 35, and 45 ℃. The ionic strength experiment showed that increasing the ionic strength of the solution causes a decrease in adsorption capacity due to decreasing electrostatic interactions between negatively charged CDC surface and lead ions; however, a removal efficiency > 99% was achieved even at 0.1 M NaCl feed solution. Moreover, the mechanisms of adsorption of lead towards CDC were discussed. The treatment of real groundwater spiked with 500 µg/L of lead showed a complete removal of lead at CDC dose of 1 g/L. The study showed the possibility of efficient regeneration of lead-saturated adsorbent for further reuse. These findings support the potential application of CDC for lead removal from water.

Systematic optimization and neural network modelling of Acartia steueri copepod reproduction for enhanced live feed solutions in sustainable aquaculture

3D porous cellulose/polyaniline aerogel composite as a high-performance electrode for selective electrosorption of rhenium.

Viral filtration by ultrafiltration membranes is a critical step to ensure viral removal in many biomanufacturing process streams. However, the nature of the feed solution and the filtration parameters used can significantly affect filter performance, product quality, and safety. In this work, the impact of three different parameters on ultrafiltration performance was investigated: 1) feed concentration, 2) protein size, and 3) inlet pressure. Findings indicate that the protein concentration of the feed solution affects flow rates in a dose-dependent manner but did not significantly alter retention of ΦX174 bacteriophage particles at the concentrations tested. Results further demonstrated that flow rates and downstream recovery of low-MW BSA were significantly higher than high-MW HgG at the same feed concentration, indicating that the molecular weight of the protein solution significantly alters ultrafiltration performance and downstream product recovery. Finally, testing showed that increasing the inlet pressure increased flow rates and throughput but decreased downstream protein recovery. Therefore, increased pressure has benefits and drawbacks that must be carefully evaluated when developing ultrafiltration process parameters.

In this study, the capture of CO2 released from an industrial production facility located between the provinces of Batman and Siirt using suitable solutions was modelled using the Aspen Plus simulation. In the study, a methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) solution was chosen as the CO2 capture agent. The process design utilized absorbers, strippers, heat exchangers, flash evaporators, and recirculation loops; different feed rates and tray counts were tested. In the first stage, only 47% of the CO2 could be captured with a feed solution of 400 t/h. However, by increasing the solution flow rate to 832 t/h, approximately 72.14 t/h (95%) of the 76 t/h of CO2 present in the feed stream was successfully captured. Furthermore, it was observed that the number of trays, initially set at 30 in both the absorber and stripper, could be reduced to 21 without any significant change in performance, thereby increasing the cost-effectiveness of the process.The results obtained demonstrate that the CO2 capture method using MDEA solutions in industrial facilities provides high efficiency. However, it is emphasized that CO2 should not only be captured but also utilized in chemical/fuel production. The widespread adoption of such technologies will significantly contribute to Turkey's achievement of future climate goals.

This study examines the application of mining effluents as feed solutions in a bench scale pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) system for energy generation and the prospect of water recycling or safe discharge to the environment. Effluents were characterized and pretreated by ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) prior to PRO. The PRO process was then conducted over 6 h in a cross flow flat plate cell with an effective membrane area of 34 cm2, a hydraulic pressure of 12.4 bar and a 3M ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 as draw solution. Effluent 1 contained ions such as Cl− (539 mg/L), NO3− (585 mg/L), SO42− (3000 mg/L), Na+ (560 mg/L), and Mg2+ (656 mg/L), with a total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of 5400 mg/L, chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 136 mg/L, total organic carbon (TOC) concentration of 3.5 mg/L, and acidic pH of 3.8, while effluent 2 was highly dominated by Cl− (32,100 mg/L), NO3− (9720 mg/L), SO42− (6512 mg/L), Na+ (14,306 mg/L), and Mg2+ (5336 mg/L), had a TDS concentration of 73,315 mg/L, COD of 8100 mg/L, TOC concentration of 10.2 mg/L, and pH of 7.4. These physiochemical properties indicated a significant potential of fouling and scaling which necessitated the appropriate pretreatments. It was shown that integrating UF and NF pretreatments was highly effective in refining the quality of effluents with a significant removal efficiency of above 90% for ions and heavy metals by NF, led to fouling mitigation, higher and more stable power density as well as potential water reuse or safe environmental discharge. The achieved water fluxes and power densities were 54 L/m2h and 18.6 W/m2, for effluent 1, and 38 L/m2h and 13 W/m2, for effluent 2, respectively. The outcome of this study is applicable for the mining sector especially in remote areas with the potential for water and energy recoveries to contribute to more sustainable mining operations.

Efficient lithium extraction from brines remains challenging due to the comparable hydrated radii of Li+ and Mg2+ and the extreme ionic strength of the feed solutions. In this work, a reconstructed polyamide (PA) nanofiltration membrane was developed via a two-stage interfacial polymerization strategy, achieving simultaneous structural and electrostatic engineering of the PA selective layer. In the first stage, the relationship between substrate physicochemical properties and the resulting density and stability of the nascent polyamide layer was established through regulation of piperazine (PIP) adsorption-diffusion behavior. In the second stage, careful selection of a non-aqueous solvent effectively suppressed acyl chloride hydrolysis and preserved abundant active sites, allowing the successful incorporation of a bidentate quaternary ammonium monomer into the newly formed PA network. This reconstruction generated a confined sub-nanometer selective layer with a tunable mild positive charge, enabling synergistic steric and electrostatic discrimination between Li+ and Mg2+. The optimized membrane exhibited excellent Li+/Mg2+ separation factors that exceeded 60 under diverse operating conditions, while the integrated nanofiltration process achieved nearly 60-fold lithium enrichment, demonstrating a practical applicability in complex brine matrices. This study establishes a generalizable molecular-level design reference for co-ion selective membranes capable of lithium extraction under chemically demanding, high-ionic-strength conditions.

Non-equilibrium reaction environments offer a route to bypass the thermodynamic constraints that limit conventional nitrogen fixation, yet such conditions remain inaccessible in traditional thermal systems. Here, we show that rapid activation-quenching chemistry inside cavitation bubbles provides a viable non‑equilibrium pathway for nitrogen fixation. The violent collapse of ultrasound-driven bubbles generates an intense temperature pulse that enables direct nitrogen activation and subsequent redox chemistry within a transient gas phase microreactor. Nitrogen-containing products are produced with tuneable rates and selectivity controlled by feed gas composition, cavitation dynamics, and solution properties. Introduced cavitation nuclei lower the cavitation threshold and improve collapse reproducibility, while noble‑gas doping modulates collapse temperatures and shifts nitrate-nitrite distributions through enhancing the involvement of water‑derived species. Isotopic labelling and single‑bubble modelling indicate that nitrogen reaction proceeds predominantly through gas‑phase pathways during collapse, which can be described by a dynamic thermodynamic model within a temperature pulse. These findings establish cavitation‑driven non-equilibrium thermal cycling as a distinct mechanism for nitrogen fixation and underscore the broader potential of transient thermal microenvironments for chemical synthesis.

Osmotic distillation (OD) was evaluated as a gentle, non-thermal route for partial removal of ethanol from beer using an in-house hydrophobic flat sheet polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane to produce a healthy beverage. A 16 wt.% PVDF membrane prepared by non-solvent induced phase inversion was mounted in a transparent acrylic cell that separated circulating feed and NaCl draw solutions at ambient temperature and zero transmembrane pressure. Membrane characterization by SEM, FTIR, and water contact angle confirmed an asymmetric porous structure, chemically intact PVDF, and stable hydrophobicity (θ ≈ 92°), suitable for vapor phase mass transfer without wetting. Ethanol-water model solutions (5 and 8 % v/v) and three commercial beers (Budweiser, Kingfisher Strong, and Kingfisher Lite) were treated with 2-3 M NaCl draws, and ethanol concentrations in both circuits were monitored by refractive index measurements calibrated with matrix-matched standards. For model solutions, the feed ethanol content decreased from 5.0 to ~2.5% and from 8.0 to 3.6%, corresponding to removal efficiencies of ~50% and ~55%, respectively, consistent with the higher vapor pressure driving force at elevated initial concentrations. For beers, single pass OD with 3 M NaCl achieved ethanol reductions of ~52 % (Budweiser), ~53 % (Kingfisher Strong), and ~58 % (Kingfisher Lite) over 24 h, with no evidence of salt passage or liquid breakthrough. These results demonstrate that a simple flat-sheet OD configuration can reproducibly deliver reduced alcohol beers under mild operating conditions and

Andosols are commonly subdivided according to silandic and aluandic features. Silandic Andosols are characterised by organic matter (OM) strongly bound to short-range ordered aluminosilicates (SROAS), while aluandic Andosols mainly consist of aluminium-OM complexes (Al-OM complexes). Two theories exist concerning their pedogenesis. One theory argues, that silandic and aluandic properties are direct results of the weathering, assuming two separate lines of genesis. The other theory argues that silandic horizons transform into aluandic over time as parts of a continuous soil forming process. The latter could be caused by dissolved organic matter (DOM) entering the silandic subsoil with the percolating soil solution and promoting the dissolution of SROAS phases by complexing Al. Increasing the loading of DOM with Al will finally result in the formation of insoluble Al-OM complexes. To test the hypothesis of in-situ transition from silandic to aluandic properties in a controlled experiment, we conducted a 20-month percolation experiment with soil material of an Ecuadorian Andosol formed in a homogeneous tephra deposit and now featuring aluandic properties in the top- and silandic properties in the subsoil. Six columns were packed with aluandic material on top of silandic material, water saturated and percolated with litter DOM-solution continuously (percolation rate 8 mm ⋅ h −1 , except for a 9-week flow stop at the beginning of the experiment). In addition, three columns were packed only with aluandic material to gain additional information on the solution entering the silandic material. Among others, silicon (Si) and Al, pH, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the feed and eluate solutions were monitored over a period of 20 months. We modelled the percolation experiment with the convection–dispersion equation as implemented in HYDRUS-1D to estimate the amount of retained DOC in the silandic material. Changes in OC concentration and mineral phases were tracked by analysing the column materials after 0, 8, and 20 months for OC concentrations, oxalate-extractable Al, Si, and iron (Fe) concentrations, and by X-ray diffraction. Our results show that percolation had little to no effect on the aluandic material. However, for the silandic eluate the molar Al:Si ratio was well below the oxalate-extractable Alox:Siox molar ratio of the silandic material itself. This hints at desilification, while Al and OC are retained relative to Si and hence supporting the hypothesis of SROAS dissolution and neo-formation of Al-OM complexes. The latter explained up to 70 % of the massive OC accumulation of 14 mg ⋅ g −1 in the silandic material, while vertical Al-OM transport and sorption played a minor role. This was supported by the HYDRUS-1D modelling, suggesting that sorption of DOM to the silandic material only dominates in the beginning of the percolation, while a DOC sink term, likely representing the formation of Al-OM complexes, operates during later stages of percolation. Overall, our results provide first and compelling experimental evidence of a pedogenic transition from silandic to aluandic Andosols under humid conditions facilitating high percolation through the soil. • Silandic and aluandic soil materials were leached with organic solute solution. • Percolation caused desilification, with Al and OC being retained in the silandic material. • OC retention was driven by sorption only at the beginning of experiment. • OC retention at later stages was due to co-precipitation with Al. • First evidence of a direct transform of silandic into aluandic material.