Fats are essential ingredients widely used in the food industry, as well as in cosmetic and pharmaceutical formulations. Solid fats are complex multicomponent systems primarily composed of triacylglycerols (TAGs), which determine the types and properties of the crystalline structures formed. TAGs crystallize in different polymorphs and stacking configurations, with distinct thermal and mechanical properties that influence the macroscopic structure and sensory profile of fat-based products. In this study, a comprehensive multi-technique analysis of animal-derived fats, specifically chicken and beef fats, was conducted. Chemical characterization was performed and solid fat content (SFC) was determined. Thermal behaviour was investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), whereas crystallization experiments were conducted using in situ turbidity measurements and synchrotron small-angle and wide-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS) for structural characterization. Three different synchrotron experimental setups were used for crystallization experiments, including static and sheared conditions. The results demonstrate that the crystallization behaviour of beef and chicken fat samples closely correlate with their TAGs composition. Synchrotron x-ray scattering provided structural insights, highlighting how the polymorphic behaviour is influenced by fat origin and crystallization conditions. For both animal fat types, all three main polymorphs and possible transitions were detected. Moreover, the presence of shear promoted crystallization of stable polymorphs.

Preparation and characterization of pectin-lauric acid fat crystal particles: interfacial adsorption and thermodynamic behavior

Palm kernel oil is commonly incorporated into plant-based cheeses to mimic the textural and structural properties of animal fats owing to its high saturated fat content. Nevertheless, growing concerns regarding saturated fat consumption have stimulated research into alternative lipid sources for plant-based products. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of substituting palm kernel oil with rice bran oil shortening (SRBO) on some selected physical, textural, functional, chemical, fatty acid and microstructural properties of plant-based mozzarella cheese analogs. Five formulations with SRBO levels of 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% were prepared and their physicochemical properties were analyzed. Increasing SRBO significantly affected color due to natural pigments in rice bran oil. The pH value declined with higher SRBO, likely due to oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Texture profile analysis showed increases in hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, gumminess, and chewiness when SRBO was increased from 0% to 100%. Meltability slightly decreased at 25-75% but remained unchanged at 100% SRBO, while stretchability decreased significantly, attributed to β-type fat crystals disrupting protein networks. The work of shear decreased significantly (p ≤ 0.05), indicating improved spreadability attributed to the softer, less-crystalline nature of unsaturated fats compared to saturated fats. Proximate analysis revealed reduced fat content and a shift from saturated to unsaturated fats, notably oleic and linoleic acids, offering potential cardiovascular benefits. Confocal laser scanning microscopy showed denser fat crystal networks and smaller fat droplets at higher SRBO levels, enhancing oil retention and stability. Protein, fiber, moisture, and ash content remained stable across samples. These findings suggested that SRBO could be a functional and health-conscious alternative to palm kernel oil in plant-based mozzarella cheese, improving nutritional quality without compromising texture or functionality.

Interface synergy in aqueous Pickering foams: Effects of food gums and sodium Caseinate on the interfacial properties of fat crystal.

Alkaline Earth Metal and Alkali Metal Hydroxide Effects on Transesterification and Subsequent Crystallization of Butteroil.

Interfacial assembly behavior of temperature-controlled surface-activated fat crystals at oil/water interfaces: characterization, interfacial dynamics, and emulsion-stabilizing capabilities

Combined physical modification of peanut protein: Impact on emulsion stability, fat crystal network, and textural properties of ice cream.

Influence of salt ionic strength on the freeze-thaw stability of sodium caseinate-modified solid lipid particle-stabilized pickering emulsions: regulation of lipid crystallization behavior and interfacial rheology.

Reducing cake fat while maintaining aeration, crumb softness, and consumer acceptance remains challenging because fat crystals contribute to interfacial stabilization and structure development. This study evaluated an interfacial processing strategy in which oil dispersion is refined by pre-emulsification to evaluate whether refining oil dispersion by pre-emulsification modulates the functional impact of lipase (via in situ formation of surface-active lipolysis products). A D-optimal design (16 formulations) quantified the effects of fat type (shortening vs. sunflower oil), fat level (100% vs. 50%), pre-emulsification (absent/present), and lipase dose (0, 50, 100 ppm; flour basis) on batter and baked-cake quality. Responses included moisture, color, volume/visual structure, texture and hedonic sensory evaluation for selected formulations. Lipase improved structure and texture, with the strongest benefits in reduced-fat samples, where hardness-related parameters decreased and volume/crumb refinement improved. Pre-emulsification modulated lipase performance in a formulation-dependent manner, indicating significant interactions. In sensory tests, the combined approach improved low-fat acceptance compared with the low-fat control. Overall, pre-emulsification-enabled lipase action offers a route to recover key quality attributes in low-fat cakes without conventional emulsifiers.

Benchtop ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering (USAXS) offers a practical route to probing micron-scale structural features in soft-matter systems, provided that instrumental limitations are explicitly defined and respected. In this work, a Rigaku NANOPIX mini USAXS instrument is used to characterize hierarchical fat crystal networks, with emphasis on establishing a reliable analysis window and appropriate treatment of slit-geometry effects. Analyzer crystal rocking curves are employed to define a lower bound for quantitative analysis (q min ≈ 3.4 × 10-4 Å-1), while counting-statistics considerations define an upper bound (q max ≈ 1.4 × 10-2 Å-1). Data outside this window are shown to be strongly influenced by direct-beam and noise artifacts and are therefore excluded from interpretation. Within the valid q-range, slit-smearing effects inherent to Bonse-Hart geometries are addressed by smearing structural models using open-source SASView software rather than numerically desmearing experimental data. Using cocoa butter, commercial chocolate, and a reference triglyceride mixture as representative case studies, power-law scattering regimes are extracted and compared with synchrotron SAXS measurements over overlapping q-ranges. While absolute slope values vary between instruments and samples, benchtop USAXS captures consistent scattering trends, including stable power-law behavior in tempered systems and transient curvature in untempered samples that diminishes upon storage. These results demonstrate that benchtop USAXS, when interpreted within a rigorously defined q-window and with appropriate resolution treatment, provides a reproducible and accessible tool for comparative analysis of hierarchical fat systems. More broadly, this study outlines best practices and interpretive boundaries for laboratory-scale USAXS measurements in soft-matter research.

Commercial oil-water emulsions typically contain a partially crystalline fat phase, which is essential for macroscopic attributes such as creaminess and whippability. While it is well established that the molecular structure of surfactants can accelerate or delay fat crystallization, much less attention has been paid to what happens at the interface during this process. Particularly, the extent to which fat crystallization modifies interfacial rheological properties remains insufficiently understood, despite their relevance for emulsion stability and functionality. This study investigates how cooling-induced crystallization of triglycerides affects interfacial viscoelasticity as a function of surfactant. Surfactants with identical saturated fatty acyl (FA) chains (C18:0) but different headgroups (Tween 60, BrijS20, Span 60), as well as Tweens with varying FA chain lengths (Tween 20: C12:0; Tween 60: C18:0), were examined. To capture differences in molecular similarity, tristearin (TS), tripalmitin (TP), and trilaurin (TL) in MCT oil were used as the fat phase. C18:0-based surfactants promoted interfacial TS crystallization and formed crystalline interfacial networks with increased viscoelasticity. Span 60 generated the strongest elastic response due to its dense interfacial packing and formation of a crystalline emulsifier layer, whereas Tween 60 and BrijS20 produced weaker, less connected structures. The FA chain length controlled the packing density and mobility of the interfacial (sub)layer and thereby the resulting interfacial viscoelasticity upon cooling. Tween 20 formed a thin and highly mobile interfacial layer that disrupted TS and TP crystallization, resulting in weaker and less connected interfacial films compared to Tween 60 (C18:0). Overall, the results show that crystallization of the dispersed fat phase actively reshapes the structure, thickness, and connectivity of the interfacial layer, thereby altering interfacial viscoelasticity. The magnitude of this effect depends on the surfactant headgroup, FA chain length, and their molecular match with the triglyceride phase, which collectively determines the extent to which interfacial networks can form.

Emulsifier synergism in aerated emulsions: coordinated regulation of fat crystallization and protein interfacial adsorption

Interfacial perspective: Modulation of fat crystallization behavior and stability of yeast proteins ice cream by sucrose esters with tailored HLB values.

Monodiacylglycerols are widely used as emulsifiers in various food products, but their macroscopic properties, such as SFC, melting point (MP), and crystallization point (CP), are difficult to predict, especially if they are derived from various vegetable oils with different fatty acid compositions. Mathematical modelling of fatty acid composition and acylglycerol profiles can quickly predict their properties, avoid costly trials or production problems, and most importantly, maintain product quality consistency. This study used several monodiacylglycerols ( MDAG) samples with different fatty acid and acylglycerol compositions to generate accurate mathematical models. A linear regression model was used as a simple and easy-to-understand model. The results showed that the dominant fatty acid composition and acylglycerol profile could predict the SFC at 40, 50, 60 and 70°C with R 2 (adj) of 0.8229; 0.9212; 0.9182 and 0.7287, respectively. The dominant fatty acid composition and acyl glycerol profile can also predict the melting point and crystallization point of MDAG with R 2 (adj) of 0.8714 and 0.8298, respectively. This information will be very useful for the food industry to design fat products with expected SFC, melting point and crystallization point. • First use of simple linear regression to predict MDAG SFC, MP, and CP • SFC at 40–70 °C predicted with high accuracy (R² adj up to 0.92) • MP and CP modeled from fatty acid and glycerol data (R² adj ≥0.83) • Offers a low-complexity alternative to advanced predictive models and fat product design

The incorporation of mangrove leaf powder into food systems offers an emerging strategy for enhancing the functional value of confectionery products. This study evaluated the effects of Sonneratia alba (S. alba) mangrove-leaf powder on the physicochemical properties, antioxidant capacity, and sensory quality of dark chocolate. Leaves were processed into fine 60-mesh powder and added at concentrations of 0–5.5% (w/w). The analytical assessments included moisture content, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity using the DPPH method, CIELAB colour parameters, texture hardness, and consumer acceptance. The product underwent enrichment with S. alba produced significant (p < 0.05) increases in TPC (49.06–64.37 mg GAE/g) and antioxidant activity (60.45–69.45%). A strong linear relationship between TPC and DPPH inhibition (R² = 0.934) indicated that phenolics contributed directly to enhanced radical-scavenging performance. Colour measurements showed elevated a* and b* values with increasing leaf concentration, reflecting intensified red–yellow chromaticity from plant pigments. Meanwhile, hardness decreased from 135.33 to 98.95 g/F, suggesting that fibre components disrupted fat crystallisation and softened the chocolate matrix. Sensory evaluation demonstrated that intermediate enrichment levels (4.5%–5.5%) provided the most favourable consumer responses, yielding the highest scores for flavour, texture, and overall acceptance. Collectively, these results indicate that powder from S. alba leaves serves as an effective natural fortifying agent capable of improving the functional profile of dark chocolate without compromising sensory desirability. The findings highlight opportunities to use mangrove biomass as a sustainable, phenolic-rich ingredient for developing clean-label, functional chocolate products.

The crystallisation of lipids in suspensions is influenced by the presence of the suspended material, in contrast to crystallisation in bulk lipids. In this research, the impact of carbohydrate particles on the crystallisation of palm oil was studied. Refined crystalline sucrose and glassy inulin were chosen as particulate materials added at a 10 wt% concentration. Suspensions were studied either without additives or together with sucrose ester (HLB 6) at a 0.5% concentration as dispersing agent. Suspensions were crystallized while cooling at 20 °C/min to 20 °C or 25 °C under static conditions. A multiscale analysis of the fat crystal network was conducted where simultaneous wide- and small-angle X-ray scattering were used to study the polymorphism, chain length stacking and crystal nanoplatelet (CNP) thickness. Ultra-small-angle X-ray scattering and cryo-scanning electron microscopy provided insights in the CNP size and shape. Polarized light microscopy and Raman spectroscopy revealed the microscale structure of the fat crystal network. Results show that both crystalline and amorphous particles act as surfaces for heterogeneous nucleation, facilitating nucleation. Polymorphic pathways and lamellar spacings remained unchanged, while CNP size decreased compared to crystallisation in the bulk lipids. The effects of the particle nature were subordinate to those of the dispersing agent.

ABSTRACT This study aims to evaluate the rheological behavior of cow, goat, buffalo, and sheep milk over a wide temperature range (1°C–90°C), considering their chemical composition. The milk from the different species showed Newtonian behavior, and the Newton model was the most suitable ( R adj 2 ≥ 0.9979; P (%) ≤ 2.6817; RQME ≤ 0.0333) to predict the rheological behavior of milk over the wide temperature range studied (1°C–90°C). Despite the statistically significant differences in the viscosity of goat and cow milk, the effect size is small in practical terms (on average, less than 4% difference), indicating that the necessary operating conditions are close to those found for a process designed for cow milk. In contrast, buffalo and sheep milk presented, on average, viscosity up to 24%–26% higher than cow and goat milk, which was attributed to the higher content of lipids, ash, and total solids, in addition to structural factors such as fat crystallization, protein interactions, and micellar structure. The Newtonian viscosity of milk from different species decreased with increasing temperature, and the Arrhenius equation described its thermal dependence well. These findings help better understand the rheological properties of milk from different species, supporting the development and improvement of dairy processes and products.

Synergistic interaction between hydrophilic polyglycerol fatty acid esters and sucrose esters regulates fat crystallization at the water/oil interface in highly unsaturated whipped emulsions

Tailoring whipped cream properties through fat composition design: Crystallization behavior and emulsion stability.

Structuro-optical optimization of ethyl cellulose-modified candelilla wax/canola oil oleogels for use as sustainable fat replacers in steamed bread systems.