Agricultural Adaptation Research Articles

Systemic barriers preventing farmer engagement in the agricultural climate transition: a qualitative study

AbstractFarmers and the agricultural sector are facing an uncertain future, due to rapidly changing agricultural policy and a nexus of commercial, environmental and biodiversity challenges brought on by anthropogenic climate change. Balancing the interests of the farming community and natural environment is generating organisational and personal conflict, rather than effective agricultural adaption and a focus on the net zero transition. In this paper, we consider how farmers and the wider farming community can participate in engagement and decision-making for the transition, on their own terms, whilst ensuring social justice for fair and equitable decision-making. We discuss findings from our research project, that used questionnaires and follow up semi-structured interviews with farmers and farming groups to reveal systemic issues that prevent farmers engaging with the climate transition to net zero during their everyday practice. We highlight the structural relationships that form these barriers and frustrate farmers when designing and implementing farm interventions to agricultural systems during times of transition. Farmers have highlighted barriers to be associated with policy, (uncertain government strategy, landowner bias in government policy and tenancy restrictions, government bureaucracy—particularly environment schemes), commercial (market forces—downward pressure from supermarkets on price points, availability of labour due to seasonal migration restrictions, increasing cost of labour) and interpersonal (succession—uncertain future of the family farm due to limited income). This frustrates the ability of farmers to address climate change through farming practices and undermines the implementation of innovative engagement practices, such as co-produced interventions, in policy and decision-making settings.

Increased farmer willingness to pay for quality cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) planting materials: evidence from experimental auctions in Cambodia and Lao PDR

AbstractVarietal turnover is a major mechanism for farmer adaptation to rapidly changing environmental and market conditions. Understanding factors related to varietal turnover is critical for safeguarding food security in the face of increasingly rapid changes to production contexts. Preference elicitation methods like experimental auctions reveal farmers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for seeds with different characteristics. We engaged farmers growing cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) across a wide geographic scope in Cambodia (n = 321, 4 provinces) and Lao PDR (n = 391, 5 provinces) in modified second-price experimental auctions to determine WTP for three cassava seed classes: farmer-produced planting stems of an undescribed variety, farmer-produced planting stems of an elite variety with lower susceptibility to Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD), and virus-free tested planting stems of the same elite variety. In Lao PDR, mean auction bids for a bundle of 20 planting stems were 0.54, 0.92, and 1.40 USD for farmer, elite, and elite tested stems, while in Cambodia the analogous mean bids were 0.58, 0.77, and 1.16 USD, respectively. A significantly higher WTP associated with elite variety and tested stems in both countries was influenced by both geographic location (province) and individual socioeconomic farmer characteristics. In Lao PDR this included lower WTP of women, higher WTP of ethnic minorities, and, for improved stems, lower WTP of farmers with increased cassava growing experience. In Cambodia fewer socioeconomic variables affected WTP. Our results indicate significant increases in WTP for clean planting materials and new varieties, supporting market-based clean seed approaches as a component of regional control strategies for the CMD epidemic currently threatening a global agri-food value chain.

Climate change shocks and crop production: The foodgrain bowl of India as an example

Global warming is causing climate change (CC) characterized by increased frequency of heatwaves, droughts, erratic rains, hailstorms, cloudbursts, floods, landslides etc. The CC has already adversely affected ecosystems. In spite of efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which lead to warming, the global temperature during 2011–20 was 1.1°C above that during pre-industrial era. The projections are that warming will continue to increase and adverse effects will intensify particularly in developing countries like India. In India a number of studies have recorded wide spatial variability in rainfall, though, many reported a general overall negative trend since mid-20th century. Further, varying pattern of rainfall has been recorded in three agroclimatic regions of Punjab state, the granary of India. Unseasonal rains followed by spiked temperature during winter (rabi) season of 2021–22 reduced wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield in Punjab by 651 kg/ha and by 301 kg/ha in Haryana compared to 2020–21. Further, the grain was of lower quality. During rainy (kharif) season of 2022, Southern Rice Black-streaked Dwarf Virus (SRBSDV), appeared for the first time in Punjab and Haryana. Some farmers ploughed the affected fields. Adverse weather during rabi 2022–23 also, reduced the wheat yield (143–150 kg/ha) in these states. At the national level, erratic weather during rabi 2021–22 and kharif 2022 caused losses of about 3 mt of grain of each of wheat and rice (Oryza sativa L.). The projected increased adverse effects due to intensified CC include food insecurity. Thus, there is an emergent need to accelerate implementation of adaptation and mitigation strategies in agriculture. The adaptation options include cultivar improvement, conservation agriculture altering growing seasons, crop diversification and sustainable soil, and water resource management. In the process of adaptive management of crop production, adjusting sowing dates and breeding cultivars having varying duration in consonance with CC has been one of the central aspects. Shifting sowing dates to find appropriate crop cultivation season is a low-cost measure. However, cultivar development is time and resource consuming. Novel biotechnological tools enable fast cultivar development with precision, and facilitate mobilization of genes from wild-weedy relatives, which are rich in genes conferring resistance/tolerance to biotic and biotic stresses, required to combat CC challenge. In view of CC stress on water resources, improving water-use efficiency (WUE) has gained importance. Sensor-based micro-irrigation/fertigation has great potential to enhance water and fertilizer-use efficiency. Similarly, the application of other smart technologies like nanotechnology, sensor-based pesticide application, bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides, need to be mobilised. In view of agro-ecological diversity in India, right-sized regionspecific technology packages have to be developed implying that crop research will expand exponentially. This needs strengthening of human resources and institutional infrastructure, expanding and linking basic and applied researches, and fortifying inter-disciplinary/inter-institutional collaborations to develop and diffuse technology innovations. Enabling factors include enhanced funding and international cooperation. All-out efforts are needed to have more climate-resilient agriculture.

Crop water requirement and irrigation scheduling under climate change scenario, and optimal cropland allocation in lower kulfo catchment

Crop water requirement and irrigation scheduling in Lower Kulfo Catchment of southern Ethiopia have not assessed under climate change scenarios, and the allocation of crop land also not optimal that signifcantly challenges to crop productivity.Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effects of climate change on future crop water requirements, and irrigation scheduling, and to allocate cropland optimally. Bias of projected precipitation and temperature were corrected by utilizing Climate Model data with the hydrologic modeling tool (CMhyd). Alongside, crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling were assessed using Crop Water Assessment Tool. After estimating crop water requirement, crop land were allocated optimally using General Algebraic Modeling System programming with non-negativity constraints (scenario 1), and non-negativity constraints based on farmers adaptation (scenario 2). Average reference evapotranspiration from 2030 to 2050 and 2060 to 2080 was increased by 11.9 %, and 16.2 %, respectively compared with the reference period (2010–2022). The total seasonal crop water requirements were 4,529 mm, 4866.7 mm, and 5272.2 mm under 2010 to 2022, 2030 to 2050, and 2060 to 2080 climate change scenarios, respectively. The meean irrigation interval in 2010–2022, 2030 to 2050, and 2060 to 2080 climate change scenarios were 8 days, 7 days, and 5 days, respectively. This irrigation interval was decreased by 14 % (2030–2050), and 34 % (2060–2080) compared with the reference period. In 2030 to 2050 and 2026 to 2080 climate change scenarios, the required irrigation water at the inlet of main canal increased by 6.8 %, and 18 %, respectively. The optimal allocated area for tomato (60.4 %), maize (20.8 %), and watermelon (18.8 %) in scenario 1 with net benefit of 1.47*108 Ethiopian Birr. The allocated areas in scenario 2 were (48 %) for maize, (31.6 %) for tomato, and (20.4 %) for watermelon with 1.34*108 Ethiopian Birr net benefit it was reduced by 19.1 % compared with the net benefit in scenario 1. Fruit crops alone may not suffice for local food needs and to address this, small farmers should grow maize, tomato, and watermelon. This research aids policymakers in encouraging climate-resilient agriculture and improving small-scale farmers' awareness through conducting workshops and training.

Behavioural determinants of adaptation of farmers to climate change in rice cultivation in the mountainous area of Vietnam

Climate change adaptation is one of the essential solutions for sustainable agricultural development in the context of global change. Besides socio-economical drivers, a thorough understanding of the behavioural dimension of climate change adaptation will provide important information for policymakers in promoting adaptation activities and contributing to the improvement of people’s livelihoods. The purpose of this study is to explore the knowledge gaps in understanding behavioural factors that affect adaptive intention in rice cultivation in the mountainous area of Vietnam. This research was carried out through a sociological survey of 254 rice-farming households in Da Bac districts, Hoa Binh province. Based on applying the Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour (E-TPB) and the data analysis using the PLS-SEM model, the research pointed out that the perceived impact of climate change and policy support are the most important determinants that affect the adaptation intention in rice cultivation. The research also discovered that the Extended Theory of Planned Behaviour explained 56.8% of the change in adaptive intention, much more than 11.9% in comparison with the basic TPB theory. The research emphasized the crucial role of policy support and raising awareness of climate change for farmers to promote the implementation of adaptive measures.

Introgression from local cultivars is a driver of agricultural adaptation in Argentinian weedy rice.

Weedy rice, a pervasive and troublesome weed found across the globe, has often evolved through fertilization of rice cultivars with little importance of crop-weed gene flow. In Argentina, weedy rice has been reported as an important constraint since the early 1970s, and, in the last few years, strains with herbicide-resistance are suspected to evolve. Despite their importance, the origin and genetic composition of Argentinian weedy rice as well its adaptation to agricultural environments has not been explored so far. To study this, we conducted genotyping-by-sequencing on samples of Argentinian weedy and cultivated rice and compared them with published data from weedy, cultivated and wild rice accessions distributed worldwide. In addition, we conducted a phenotypic characterization for weedy-related traits, a herbicide resistance screening and genotyped accessions for known mutations in the acetolactate synthase (ALS) gene, which confers herbicide resistance. Our results revealed large phenotypic variability in Argentinian weedy rice. Most strains were resistant to ALS-inhibiting herbicides with a high frequency of the ALS mutation (A122T) present in Argentinian rice cultivars. Argentinian cultivars belonged to the three major genetic groups of rice: japonica, indica and aus while weeds were mostly aus or aus-indica admixed, resembling weedy rice strains from the Southern Cone region. Phylogenetic analysis supports a single origin for aus-like South American weeds, likely as seed contaminants from the United States, and then admixture with local indica cultivars. Our findings demonstrate that crop to weed introgression can facilitate rapid adaptation to agriculture environments.

Quantifying food consumption supply risk: An analysis across countries and agricultural products

Resource criticality is the field of study that quantifies supply risks for a set of resources. To assess the vulnerability of a country's food supply, whether domestically produced or imported, supply risk indexes for agricultural products have been developed by adapting a resource criticality method and a supply diversity model. These indexes take into account both the diversity of supply and the risks to which each sourcing option is exposed, such as climate or price volatility.The results enable a comparison of the supply risk of food consumption between different countries and identification of the products with the highest risk of supply disruption for each country. When analysed by region, the results indicate that North America and Europe generally have lower supply risk across all products than the rest of the world, while African and Sub-Saharan countries tend to have the highest supply risk. Furthermore, the analysis of supply risks for four cereals - wheat, maize, rice, and sorghum - indicates that trade diversification can reduce supply risks for wheat and maize in many countries. However, for rice and sorghum, supply risk reduction will most likely be achieved through stockpiling, export redirection, and adaptation of agriculture to climate change. The results highlight the importance of supply risk indexes for decision-making, particularly when compared to self-sufficiency. Finally, limitations and new perspectives are discussed, including the need to adapt the index to nutritional data, consider competition for agricultural product usage, and refine climate or economic risk indexes.

Agricultural adaptation strategies under Morales’s administration: The Case of a Guarni Community in the Bolivian Chaco

Agricultural adaptation strategies under Morales’s administration: The Case of a Guarni Community in the Bolivian Chaco

Cultural Perspectives on Climate Change Adaptation in Agriculture an Ethnoecological Study

In an era where climate change is becoming increasingly apparent, adaptation in the agricultural sector is becoming more crucial. This research adopts a literature study approach to explore the cultural perspective on climate change adaptation in agriculture through the lens of ethnoecology. Through searching and analyzing relevant literature, the main findings indicate that local culture plays a significant role in shaping farmers' adaptation practices. These practices include the utilization of traditional knowledge, cultural values, and local knowledge systems to respond to the challenges of climate change. It is found that local wisdom is not merely an additional resource but an integral aspect in strengthening the resilience of farming communities. However, challenges such as limited access to resources and economic uncertainty remain barriers to adaptation efforts. Therefore, the integration of local knowledge into policy planning and the development of local capacity are relevant recommendations to enhance climate change adaptation in agriculture. This research provides insights into the complexity of the relationship between culture and climate change adaptation in agriculture, highlighting the importance of strengthening the involvement of local communities in mitigation and adaptation efforts.

Adapting to climate change: what really drives the choices of the producers of Geographical Indications?

In an era of rapid climate change, there is an increasing call for the efforts directed at detecting best practices of climate change adaptation in agriculture and understanding the factors behind producers’ willingness to implement adaptation strategies. Many studies consider solely traditional agriculture and specific sectors (e.g., wine), while little attention has been paid to certified and high-quality products, as a whole. To fill this knowledge gap, in 2022 a questionnaire-based online survey was administered to 137 producers of agri-food Geographical Indications in the Veneto Region (north-eastern Italy). Using a multinomial logit model, this study highlights the factors explaining adaptation strategies distinguishing three cases: (i) farmers who have implemented adaptation strategies; (ii) farmers intending to implement them in the future; (iii) farmers neither having implemented nor willing to do so. Results suggest that socio-demographic characteristics, particularly education, matter, with producers holding a high school degree in agriculture showing a greater willingness to adapt. Also, being full-time farmer couples with higher probability of having already implemented adaptation strategies. Lastly, also a direct observation of climate change in the production area affects farmers’ adaptation decisions.

Analysis of the Impact of Temperature Changes on the Productivity of Arabica Coffee Plants (Coffea arabica) Based on Coffee Farmer Adaptation Response

The productivity of coffee plants is highly dependent on changes in environmental temperature. This change caused several problems with its productivity, including: crop failure, decreased coffee bean quality, and decreased crop quantity. In addition, coffee farmers do not understand the impact it causes so that farmers are unable to make appropriate adaptation responses to the threat of changes in environmental temperature. This study aims to determine the impact caused by changes in environmental temperature on Arabica coffee plants based on the response of coffee farmers in Cipaganti village, Garut regency, Indonesia. The research method used is descriptive qualitative. Data collection was carried out using interviews, observation and documentation studies. Sampling using purposive sampling technique with the criteria of respondents who have their own land and have been farming for at least 5 years. The results showed that all farmers knew and felt changes in environmental temperature at the study site with an indicator of temperature rise. Changes in temperature have caused a decrease in productivity, a decrease in fruit quality, an increase in pest and disease attacks such as fruit borer, stem borer and leaf rust.

Horticultural Farmer's Perceptions and Adaptations to Climate Change in East Java, Indonesia

The agricultural sector highly vulnerable to the risks and impacts of global climate change. Horticultural farmers in East Java have experienced climate change, which is marked by a decrease in the level of productivity produced in recent years. This study aims to determine how farmers' perceptions of climate change and adaptation strategies are carried out. Data were collected through direct survey to horticultural farmers in Malang and Kediri Regencies, East Java. Data analysis was carried out descriptively, by describing the data that had been collected regarding the perception and adaptation of farmers. The results of the study shows that farmers have a high perception of climate change. Farmers' strategies in dealing with climate change include the adaptation by changing cropping patterns, changing plant varieties, changing plant types, changing fertilizer inputs, doing irrigation, and increasing knowledge and skills about agriculture.

Socioeconomic determinants of modern climate change adaptation of small-scale vegetable farmers in Bohlabela District, Mpumalanga Province

Climate change significantly impacts small-scale agriculture, with limited adaptation capabilities due to lack of access to advanced science and technology. Traditional methods are ideal, but modern adaptations require significant financial investment, affecting the smallholder under-resourced agricultural sector's economic activities. The study analyzed climate change adaptation drivers among small-scale vegetable farmers, using a representative sample of 244 farmers from four villages through face-to-face interviews and semi-structured questionnaires. Using the Logistic regression model, the results showed resources (extension services), institutional (association membership) and societal influence (farm produce theft, and animal trespassing in the farming plots) to be associated with the use of modern climate change adaptation measures in the study area. The study recommends expanding extension services, strengthening community policing, creating community grazing guidelines, and training farmers on climate change causes, social cohesion, and mitigation strategies to address farm produce theft and animal trespassing. The study contributes new knowledge to the discourse of climate change adaptation by providing empirical evidence pointing out the need to consider critical non-climate factors for farmers when making climate change adaptations interventions in the smallholder farming sector.

Climate change impacts on agricultural trade and food security in emerging economies: case of Southern Africa

Climate change has been a significant threat to sustainable agriculture impacting trade and food security. This research investigates the impacts of climate change on agricultural trade and food security in emerging economies focusing on Southern Africa. The research employed the dynamic panel Generalised Method of Moments (GMM) using panel data for the period 2012 to 2021 obtained from a sample of 12 Southern African countries selected based on data availability. The main independent variables to the research were climate change variables (temperature and precipitation). Other control variables included were population growth, food inflation and agricultural growth. The study found significant negative effects of climate change on agriculture trade. Whilst temperature changes were found to have insignificant effects, precipitation changes were found to have significant positive effects. The research recommends concerted efforts towards climate change adaptation and mitigation for sustainable agriculture. Based on the Findings, sustainable food security and agricultural trade Southern African emerging economies may be attained through effective climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches particularly promoting climate-smart agriculture (CSA).

Understanding Farmers Perception of Climate Change to Prepare Adaptation of Farmers

The impact of climate change has resulted in a decline in agricultural productivity. This study estimated farmers’ perceptions of climate change by comparing Imogiri Sub-district represent highland area and Pundong Sub-district deputize lowland area farmers in Bantul Regency. This study collected data using questionnaires to 79 respondents then analysis by likerts scale and descriptive statistical. The results showed that there six indicators of climate change became farmers’ perceptions. The farmers perception on highland regarding climate change is that 54% of farmers feel a decrease in rainfall, 54% feel drought, 55.2% feel a longer dry season, 60.8% feel reduced water sources, 74.4% feel a decrease in crop quality and 73.2% feel a decrease in crop quantity. At the same time, the perception of farmers in the lowland area regarding climate change is 66.9% of farmers feel a decrease in rainfall, 68.28% feel drought, 71.03% feel a longer dry season, 68.28% feel reduced water sources, 77.93% feel a decrease in crop quality and 77.93% feel a decrease in crop quantity. The importance of farmers’ perceptions of climate change may be used to adaptation from climate change. Understanding farmers’ perceptions can aid the impact of climate change on agricultural productivity.

Advantages of early-maturity soybean varieties as a farmer adaptation effort to climate change in Grobogan Regency

The climate change impact is cropping patterns change, including unpredictable droughts and floods. These conditions require soybean farmers to adapt, one of them is adopting early maturing soybean varieties. This research aims to identify the advantages of early-maturity soybean varieties, financial feasibility, and technical Efficiency. This study collected data from 40 soybean farmers in the Grobogan Regency. Soybean farming data used in planting season III (May-August) 2021. Biosoy varieties are early maturing, compared to the Anjasmoro varieties as existing soybeans. The financial feasibility of early-maturing soybeans is analyzed by the Marginal Benefit Cost Ratio (MBCR), while technical Efficiency is by stochastic frontier. The research showed that a) advantages of Biosoy early-maturing soybeans include higher production, larger seeds, and reduced risk of crop failure due to drought; b) Biosoy varieties are feasible to develop with an MBCR level of 3.19, and c) an average technical efficiency is 0.92. Biosoy varieties demonstrated better advantages than Anjasmoro varieties. The government, as a policy maker, is expected to be able to encourage farmers to adopt Biosoy varieties and optimize production inputs to make them more efficient so that farmers can adapt to climate change adaption.

What do vegetable farmers expect from climate services to adapt to climate change by 2060? A case study from the Parisian region

Climate services are an important tool providing information for many sectors to adapt to climate change. For agriculture, the impacts of climate change vary between regions and between crops, and farmers' needs for climate information are also determined by local context. The purpose of this paper is to identify the climate information needs of vegetable farmers, and to discuss these needs within the specific context of the Parisian region. Based on participatory workshops in three areas of the Parisian region, and using regional downscaled data from the French climate services, this study addresses the following question: what do vegetable farmers of a peri-urban area expect from climate services to adapt to climate change by 2060? Participatory workshops with agricultural expert allowed us to build a preliminary set of climate variables based on crops' vulnerability to high temperatures, mild temperature in winter, late frost, low relative air humidity, low precipitation, and climate extremes such as drought, heat waves and floods. Based on this set of variables climate projection on monthly, seasonal, and annual scales were provided to farmers for the near (2021–2040) and distant (2041–2060) future, as well as for past period (1990–2020) and discussed during 3 participatory workshops. Based on farmer’s feedbacks, we made a synthesis of climate information required by farmers which was validated and further discussed in a last round of workshops involving farmers and agricultural advisers. Three main findings emerge from this participatory study. Our first finding shows the need for both climate and non-climate information for vegetable farming adaptation. Specific needs include information on wind speed peaks and directions, soil moisture, climate analogous spaces (or sites), and urban planning regulations (constraining the possibility to build greenhouses or tunnels to adapt to climate change). Our second finding is that farmers expect from climate services to visualise a comprehensive climatic situation, that is, a whole conjunction of several inter-related variables, rather than precise and detailed variations of a single one. Seasonal and annual time scales seem to be the most relevant for farmers’ adaptation strategies (except for frost requiring more precise information). Our third finding is that these needs remain context-specific and depend on water access, the market demand (here Parisian), and the peri-urban location.

Agricultural Adaptation Strategies to Weather Fluctuations for Improved Agribusiness Sustainability in West Java

This research investigates agricultural adaptation strategies to weather fluctuations for enhancing agribusiness sustainability in West Java, Indonesia. Employing a qualitative research methodology, the study delves into the challenges posed by climate variability and the responses of farmers and agribusiness stakeholders to mitigate these challenges. Through interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation, the research identifies key weather-related challenges, including erratic rainfall patterns, temperature extremes, natural disasters, and pest outbreaks. Furthermore, the study explores adaptation strategies such as crop diversification, water management, soil conservation, adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties, and agroforestry. The findings contribute to understanding the complexities of agricultural adaptation and offer insights for policymakers, practitioners, and stakeholders to promote sustainable agribusiness development in West Java and similar regions facing climate-related challenges.

Climate services for agriculture: Steering towards inclusive innovation in Australian climate services design and delivery

CONTEXTClimate services are integral to climate change adaptation in agriculture. Inclusive innovation prioritises inclusion of marginalised actors, grassroots knowledge and accessibility of use. Yet many innovation processes are multi-stakeholder, complex and may not prioritise inclusion from the outset. In these circumstances, researchers and designers may seek to influence existing projects towards greater inclusivity. OBJECTIVESThis paper explores efforts to increase the inclusivity of existing innovation processes, focusing on the design of My Climate View, an online Australian climate services platform for agriculture. Findings relate to contemporary issues in inclusive innovation literature, including: (1) Who should be included in innovation processes (within given resourcing)?; (2) How requirements for inclusion or exclusion can emerge through the design and use of a technology; and (3) The influence of program level structures upon inclusivity and design. METHODSOur approach is informed by Responsible Innovation and Inclusive Innovation theory and enacted through user-centred design. Findings are synthesised from analysis of 60 semi-structured interviews with farmers, advisors and extension officers. We additionally draw on observations as researchers in the multi-actor My Climate View development team, where extensive engagement separate to research activities has included agricultural and Indigenous stakeholders. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONEngaging with a broad sample of potential target users enabled diverse and sometimes unexpected use cases. Customisation of interface parameters allowed the incorporation of tacit knowledge and positively affected the inclusivity of My Climate View, extending the value of the platform to growers of niche commodities outside of the original scope. Inclusivity in innovation can be impacted by diverse factors, including design team decisions, structural factors, budget and external factors. Requirements for inclusion and exclusion can emerge and evolve throughout a design process, supporting Responsible Innovation's framing of inclusivity alongside principles of reflexivity and responsiveness. SIGNIFICANCEThe findings enrich the evidence base for climate services and broader agricultural technology development processes by providing insights for those seeking greater impact by practicing inclusivity in innovation. We provide four implications for increasing inclusivity in the design of climate services: (1) Maximising customisation and avoiding prescriptive interpretation enables greater flexibility of use; (2) Sampling broadly within target users to uncover unanticipated values and opportunities for inclusion and exclusion; (3) It is important to embed efforts towards inclusion alongside processes of reflexivity; and (4) Responsible and inclusive approaches to climate services design are valuable even if brought in once development has commenced.

Vulnerability and adaptation of maize smallholder farmers to climate change: a Sub-Saharan African context

This study analyzed smallholder maize farmers' perceptions of climate change vulnerability and adaptation strategies in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. The study used a cross-sectional quantitative approach, with smallholder farmers selected based on farm size (less than 10 hectares). Using simple random sampling techniques, 210 smallholder farmers in South Kivu Province was selected from October and November 2021. The data were analyzed using frequency analysis, non-parametric Mann–Whitney U-tests, Tobit regression model and structural equations modeling, which demonstrated that demographic and socioeconomic factors influenced smallholder farmers' perceptions and adaptation strategies to climate change. The findings revealed that the level of education, size of the field, and activities of smallholder farmers had significant effects on climate change perception and adaptation strategies. Smallholder farmers' perceptions had a negative (p < 1%) influence on maize smallholder farmers' adaptation to climate change. Common efforts should be made to encourage smallholder farmers to feel committed enough to implement climate change adaptation measures that are effective in mitigating or preventing climate change risk. The results of this study would have implications for policies to support maize smallholder farmers in their efforts to mitigate and resilient to climate change in sub-Saharan Africa. Firstly, the promotion of climate literacy must be sufficient to provide farmers with information on climate and forecasting. Secondly, to empower smallholder farmers with means and resources to prevent and reduce the effects of climate change. Lastly, enhancing the current environment for the agriculture sector will advance community inclusivity and food security.