Farmworker Children Research Articles

Association of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure with sexually dimorphic differences in anogenital distance among Thai farmworker children

Organophosphate (OP) insecticides are some of the most abundantly used insecticides, and prenatal exposures have been linked to adverse maternal and child health outcomes. Anogenital distance (AGD) has emerged as an early marker of androgen activity, and later reproductive outcomes, that is sensitive to alteration by environmental chemicals. Here, we examined associations between prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos, an OP insecticide, with AGD. Pregnant farmworkers were enrolled in the Study of Asian Women and their Offspring's Development and Environmental Exposures (SAWASDEE; N = 104) between 2017 and 2019 in Northern Thailand. Concentrations of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), a specific metabolite of chlorpyrifos, were measured in composited urine samples obtained from each trimester of pregnancy. AGD was measured at 12 months of age. Sex-specific adjusted linear regression models were used to examine associations between average and trimester-specific TCPy levels and AGD. In adjusted models for females and males, increasing TCPy was consistently associated with a modest, non-significant reduction in AGD. Across both strata of sex, associations were greatest in magnitude for trimester 3 (females: β = −2.17, 95 % confidence interval (CI) = −4.99, 0.66; males: β = −3.02, 95 % CI = −6.39, 0.35). In the SAWASDEE study, prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure was not strongly associated with AGD at 12 months of age.

Healthcare utilization for asthma exacerbation among children of migrant and seasonal farmworkers

Latino children of Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers (MSFWs) with asthma are at risk for poor health outcomes due to medical access barriers. We compared differences in acute care utilization for asthma exacerbations among migrant and non-migrant Latino and non-Hispanic white (NHW) children at U.S. community health centers.A retrospective observational study utilizing electronic health record data from the ADVANCE Clinical Research Network of United States community health centers included 13,423 children ages 3–17 with a primary care visit between 2005 and 2017 from eight states. Emergency department (ED) and hospitalization data came from Oregon Medicaid claims. Outcomes included acute clinic visits, ED visits, and hospitalizations for asthma exacerbation. Regression analyses adjusted for patient-level covariates.Latino children had higher odds of acute clinic visits for asthma exacerbation compared to NHW children (MSFW odds ratio [OR] = 1.17, 95 % CI = 1.03–1.33; without migrant status OR = 1.13, 95 % CI = 1.03–1.23). MSFW children using Oregon Medicaid had fewer ED visits (rate ratio [RR] = 0.72, 95 % CI = 0.52–0.99) and hospitalizations (RR = 0.47, 95 % CI = 0.26–0.86) compared to NHW children.Increased community health center visits may help mitigate disparities in acute asthma care for MSFW children.

Comparing impact of pesticide exposure on cognitive abilities of Latinx children from rural farmworker and urban non-farmworker families in North Carolina.

Pesticide exposure remains a health hazard despite extensive study into adverse effects. Children in vulnerable populations, such as Latinx children in farmworker families, are particularly at risk for exposure. Several studies have demonstrated the detrimental cognitive effects of prenatal exposure to pesticides, particularly organophosphates (OPs) within this high-risk group. However, results from studies investigating the cognitive effects of early childhood pesticide exposure are equivocal. Most studies examining the effects of pesticide exposure have used correlative analyses rather than examining populations with expected high and low exposure. The current study compares 8-year-old children from rural families of farmworkers and urban, non-farmworker families. We used the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fifth Edition (WISC-V) to assess cognitive performance in these children. We designed this study with the expectation that children from farmworker families would have greater exposure to agricultural pesticides than urban, non-farmworker children. This assumption of exposure to agricultural pesticides was confirmed in a recent report that assessed exposure probabilities using life history calendars. However, data from passive wristband sampling of acute (1-week) pesticide exposure from these same children indicate that both study populations have considerable pesticide exposure but to different chemicals. As expected the children of farmworkers had greater OP exposure than non-farmworker children, but the non-farmworker children had greater exposure to two other classes of insecticides (organochlorines [OCs] and pyrethroids). Our analyses considered these findings. A comparison of the cognitive scores between groups revealed that children from farmworker families had slightly higher performance on the Visual-Spatial Index (VSI) and Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) when compared to children from non-farmworker families. Regression analyses where pesticide exposure was included as covariates revealed that OC exposure accounted for the largest portion of the group differences for both VSI and VCI. However, a post-hoc moderation analysis did not find significant interactions. The main study outcome was that the non-farmworker children exhibited lower WISC-V scores than the children from farmworker families, and the analyses incorporating pesticide exposure measures raise the hypothesis the that pervasive and persistent nature of a variety of pesticides may have adverse effects on the neurodevelopment of young Latinx children whether living in rural or non-farmworker environments.

Promoting kindergarten readiness using early intervention art therapy with Latinx farmworker children

Latinx farmworker children are a vulnerable and disparate health population that confronts a myriad of threats to their emotional and behavioral health and subsequent development. Art therapy provides a potentially valuable and efficient strategy for preventing young children's mental health problems by providing a structured and engaging outlet for resolving the emotional sequelae of chronic adversity. A narrative-focused and trauma-processing art therapy program was implemented with 14 children aged between 3–5 years over 12 sessions in a bi-weekly format within a rural migrant head start program. We used a simple single group pre/posttest design to examine the impact of this intervention and saw improvement in all developmental areas using a specifically designed art therapy observation measure (ATC-PC) and a routine early development measure (LAP-3). However, it was unclear whether these changes were attributable to the art therapy program alone. Therefore, the findings of this pilot study warrant replication at a wider-scale. Additionally, the ATC-PC was shown to be a promising observation tool to document progress in art therapy with young children that also requires wider implementation and further testing.

JA:2021-16. A Roadmap for Delivering Child Care in Agricultural Communities

ABSTRACT Purpose: The “Protecting Children While Parents Work in Agriculture” project aims to establish safe and nurturing environments for farmworker children while their parents work. Access to good child care aids worker recruitment, improves retention, and boosts morale. However, childcare services are sometimes nonexistent, cost prohibitive, or not available when needed. Ensuring adequate services is best accomplished when childcare providers, agricultural employers, and farmworker parents work together. The Roadmap for Delivering Child Care in Agricultural Communities (Roadmap) was developed to facilitate this collaboration. Results/Findings: This project conducted focus groups, surveys, and interviews with agribusiness representatives, childcare providers, and farmworker parents. This formative research found that 90% of surveyed agribusinesses believe providing childcare services to employees’ children fosters a more stable workforce, improves employee morale, and enhances company reputation. About half indicated they need guidance on how to implement these services. Interviews with childcare providers indicated that access to child care could improve with representation by the grower community. Farmworker parents stated they were more likely to choose a job in a location with childcare services, and more women would choose to work if child care was available. With these findings, the project team drafted the Roadmap, a step-by-step guide for developing childcare facilities and improving existing childcare services and access to services. It also includes evidence supporting successful agricultural safety and health interventions and how adequate child care is a beneficial investment for agribusinesses and farmworkers alike. It was reviewed by childcare providers, growers, and farmworker advocates, who all agreed the Roadmap is a useful resource they recommend to others. The project team used their feedback to refine the Roadmap language and content and provide recommendations for dissemination. To promote this to key stakeholders, the team developed a promotional video, social media toolkit, and a media release. Practical Application: Growers and other stakeholders can use the Roadmap to facilitate improved access to childcare services for their employees, including creating new childcare options. Stakeholders are encouraged to distribute this handbook in regions with large numbers of hired agricultural workers and to facilitate linkages between growers and childcare providers.

Teachers’ perspectives on communication and parent engagement in early childhood education programs for migrant farmworker children

As early childhood education programs in the United States increasingly serve a growing number of children from linguistically and culturally diverse families, understanding teacher practices to better serve these families continues to be an important focus for the profession. In programs that serve migrant farmworker families, little is known about teachers’ communication practices and ways in which teachers promote parent engagement with migrant farmworker families. This article explores the practices of teachers relevant to family communication and engagement in Migrant and Seasonal Head Start programs, a branch of Head Start program for farmworker families, mostly of Mexican origin. This study used qualitative methods of in-depth interviews and a focus group to bring forth the perspectives and lived experience of Spanish-speaking and English-speaking teachers working with farmworker families in the Great Lakes region of the United States. Key findings illustrate the role of shared language and culture, mediated language barriers, the reliability of interpreters and written communication, and authentic ways of creating home–school connections with the migrant farmworker community.

The Associations between Enrollment Duration and Health Outcomes among Migrant Head Start Children

This study examined the association between enrollment duration and health treatment outcomes among migrant Head Start children. Children (n = 1,399) were divided into two groups: those who enrolled for 1 year and those who enrolled more than 2 years. Health treatment outcomes were preventative dental treatment, asthma treatment, hearing/vision, and anemia/high lead level treatment. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine whether enrollment duration has any association with health treatment outcomes. Child and family baseline variables were examined for their association with enrollment duration. Children who were enrolled more than 2 years were likely to be older, to live with two parents, to speak Spanish at home, to receive supplemental nutritional assistance program, to live in a higher family income household, to have reliable transportation and to stay in the program for more weeks. Longer enrollment duration has a positive association with preventative dental treatment, asthma treatment, and hearing/vision treatment. Thus, active recruitment through interagency collaborations for children of migrant and seasonal farmworkers needs to be done to promote earlier and longer enrollment duration for the migrant Head Start program. A future study needs to be done on the barriers to health care treatment services among migrant children.

Providing consistency in care: a case study of bilingual and bicultural early childhood education for farmworker children in rural midwestern United States

ABSTRACT In the United States, migrant and seasonal farmworkers mostly of Latino origin work seasonal jobs on large scale farms. Because many of these jobs are temporary, farmworkers often move frequently across state lines and international borders to follow the work in agriculture. Many farmworkers travel with families including young children and one challenge of this population is stable child care and access to education services for their children. Migrant and Seasonal Head Start program (MSHS), a branch of Head Start, provides seasonal childcare and early childhood education services to young children of migrant and seasonal farmworkers ages birth through 5. This case study explored how MSHS operates seasonal programs for farmworkers children and examines the ways in which educators provide consistency in care for farmworker children. Specifically, the study focused on bilingual and bicultural programing, mobility of teachers, consistency in care, and teachers’ knowledge of the program and farmworker community.

Bad Lungs/Bad Air: Childhood Asthma and Ecosyndemics among Mexican Immigrant Farmworkers of California's San Joaquin Valley

California's San Joaquin Valley, one of the most highly productive—and contaminated—agricultural regions in the world, is beset by some of the nation's worst air quality and high rates of childhood asthma. Children of Mexican-origin farmworkers in the San Joaquin Valley have exceptionally high rates of asthma compared with children of Mexican descent in both the United States and Mexico. We suggest that public health paradigms, which posit that Mexican-American children are at relatively low risk of developing childhood asthma, do not apply to the population of children of Mexican immigrant farmworkers in the San Joaquin Valley. Combining ethnographic and photovoice methods, we demonstrate how industrial farming conditions systematically expose children of farmworkers to environmental insults over which they have little or no control, including pesticide exposure, bovine contamination, agricultural field burning, and substandard housing, all of which contribute to high prevalence of asthma among children. We argue that the application of structural vulnerability, structural violence, and ecosyndemic frameworks can be used to better explicate complex environmental injustices that might otherwise be overlooked by more reductionistic theories.

Executive function, dispositional resilience, and cognitive engagement in Latinx children of migrant farmworkers

Children from Latinx migrant farmworker (LMFW) families are one of the most educationally disenfranchised and marginalized student populations in the United States. They experience significant contextual risks and stressors which are linked to poor adjustment as well as lower academic engagement and success. Given that LMFW children are understudied, especially likely to experience substantial adversity, and are a vulnerable student population, it is imperative for researchers to examine factors that contribute to their well-being and school success. In the present study, we assessed whether behavioral tasks of executive function contributed to resilience and academic mastery/efficacy in LMFW children (N = 66, mean age = 12.79, 55% male). Results found associations between executive function tasks and dispositional resilience; however, executive function was not directly associated with academic mastery/efficacy. Dispositional resilience was significantly positively associated with academic mastery/efficacy. These findings suggest that it may be critically important for organizations working with LMFW children to foster and boost children's executive function skills. Additional research mitigating adversity and promoting the academic success and engagement of LMFW children is needed.

Visual Impairment and Eye Disease Among Children of Migrant Farmworkers.

To determine the prevalence of reduced visual acuity and ocular disease in the children of migrant farmworkers in Georgia. A retrospective chart review of data acquired by a vision screening was performed on 156 Haitian and Hispanic children of migrant farmworkers attending a summer school in Georgia. Reduced visual acuity at presentation was analyzed and stratified by ethnicity, type of ocular disease, and immediate resolution with refractive correction. The authors found that 20% of migrant farmworker children have a high prevalence of reduced visual acuity in the worse eye. Of those with worse-eye reduced visual acuity, 83% had uncorrected refractive error. The prevalence of uncorrected refractive error from astigmatism and high astigmatism was significantly higher among Hispanics than Haitians. The prevalence of amblyopia suspects among migrant farmworker children was 3%. Of the amblyopia suspects, 80% were anisometropic. Children of migrant farmworkers in Georgia have a higher rate of reduced visual acuity, largely from uncorrected refractive error, when compared to other Hispanic and African American children in the United States with a prevalence more aligned to children in Asian and Latin American countries than school children in the United States. This illustrates the need for improved access to screening and care in this vulnerable population. [J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 2019;56(1):28-34.].

Longitudinal, Seasonal, and Occupational Trends of Multiple Pesticides in House Dust.

Background:Children are especially vulnerable to pesticide exposure and can suffer lasting health effects. Because children of farmworkers are exposed to a variety of pesticides throughout development, it is important to explore temporal patterns of coexposures.Objectives:The objectives of this study were to characterize the pesticide co-exposures, determine how they change over time, and assess differences between farmworker and nonfarmworker households.Methods:Dust collected from 40 farmworker and 35 nonfarmworker households in the Yakima Valley of the State of Washington in 2005 and then again in 2011 was analyzed for 99 pesticides. Eighty-seven pesticides representing over 28 classes were detected. Pesticides were grouped into classes using U.S. EPA pesticide chemical classifications, and trends in concentrations were analyzed at the class level.Results:Levels of organophosphates, pyridazinones, and phenols significantly decreased between 2005 and 2011 in both farmworker and nonfarmworker households. Levels of anilides, 2,6-dinitroanilines, chlorophenols, triclosan, and guanidines significantly increased in both farmworker and nonfarmworker households in 2011 vs. 2005. Among farmworkers alone, there were significantly lower levels of N-methyl carbamates and neonicotinoids in 2011.Conclusions:We observed significant reductions in the concentrations of many pesticides over time in both farmworker and nonfarmworker households. Although nonfarmworker households generally had lower concentrations of pesticides, it is important to note that in comparison with NHANES participants, nonfarmworkers and their families still had significantly higher concentrations of urinary pesticide metabolites. This finding highlights the importance of detailed longitudinal exposure monitoring to capture changes in agricultural and residential pesticide use over time. This foundation provides an avenue to track longitudinal pesticide exposures in an intervention or regulatory context. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3644

A mixed‐method examination of ego‐resiliency, adjustment problems, and academic engagement in children of Latino migrant farmworkers

AbstractChildren from Latino migrant farmworker (LMFW) families are one of the most educationally disenfranchised and marginalized populations of students in the United States. These children face similar disadvantages to other low‐income immigrant families, but often experience unique contextual stressors due to high mobility that places them at high risk for mental health problems, risk‐taking behaviors, and poor academic engagement. Despite these high vulnerabilities few researchers have focused their efforts on LMFW children specifically, or addressed resilience factors in particular. Ego‐resiliency is an enduring psychological construct reflecting how individuals overcome day‐to‐day challenges. We used a convergent mixed method cross‐sectional design to examine the effects of LMFW children's (N = 66, ages 6–18, Mage = 12.79) depressive and conduct problems on their academic efficacy/mastery, and whether ego‐resiliency counteracted these relations. Ego‐resiliency was negatively associated with depression and conduct problems, and positively related to academic efficacy/mastery. Conduct problems were negatively related to academic efficacy/mastery, but depression was not. Ego‐resiliency also moderated the relation of depression to academic efficacy/mastery. Qualitative results provided a deeper explanation of contributing factors to LMFW children's adjustment, how adjustment problems affected their academic success, and the coping mechanisms and resilience factors used by LMFW children to overcome difficult experiences.

“Vamos a la Escuelita Arte Terapia”: An Art Therapy Protocol for Promoting Resilience with Latino Farm Worker Children

ABSTRACTChildren of Latino farm worker families risk experiencing emotional and behavioral issues. Yet mental health resources are often inaccessible because of transportation and communication disparities. Subsequently, there is a need for accessible therapy-based programs which cross language and cultural barriers. The pilot study, la Escuelita Arte Terapia, sought to address the compounding needs of the children by running a six-week art therapy protocol within a Latino farm worker community in southern Georgia. The average attendance was 95 percent, with approximately 25 children between the ages of 2 and 7 attending each session. Observational data revealed that several therapeutic goals were successful in building internal resiliency while working to reduce risk factors and improve the participant’s school-readiness. Specifically, participants displayed increased developments in their fine and gross motor skills, creative development, emotional expression, behavioral focus, and social engagement. Several factors contributed to the success of la Escuelita Arte Terapia, which included how the promotores acted as mediators between the art therapists and the families, the art therapists’ supportive role, the art therapy milieu, and the community connections. It is hoped that future endeavors will build on the intervention proposed to help determine how art therapy can address emotional and behavioral disparities with Latino farm worker children.

HPV Knowledge and Vaccine Initiation Among Mexican-Born Farmworkers in North Carolina.

The human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine is an effective but underused cancer prevention tool. This study assessed knowledge of HPV and HPV vaccine initiation among Mexican-born farmworkers in North Carolina. Interviewer-administered questionnaires were conducted with 100 Latino farmworkers and 100 nonfarmworker Latino North Carolina residents in 2015 as part of an ongoing community-based participatory research project. Farmworkers had low levels of knowledge about HPV and the HPV vaccine. They had a similar amount of HPV and HPV vaccine knowledge compared to nonfarmworkers. Farmworkers and nonfarmworkers learned about the HPV vaccine from different sources. Adolescent children of farmworkers and nonfarmworkers had low HPV vaccine initiation. However, for children living in the United States with farmworker parents, vaccine initiation was high. To prevent HPV-related cancers and improve health equity, interventions are needed in order to increase HPV education and vaccine initiation among children of Mexican-born farmworkers and nonfarmworkers. Public health programs should look for partners outside the traditional health care setting to reach underserved populations. Other key strategies include promoting catch-up vaccines, improving patient-provider communication, and providing case management services.

Voices from the harvest: The role of language, identity, and life experience in the education of young children of migrant farmworkers

ABSTRACTThis study is an ethnographic case study that focuses on three family members from Mexican migrant farmworker households (a father, a grandmother, and mother), their discussions around the topic of educating their children, and their engagement in the seasonal early childcare programs that serve farmworker children. This study takes a sociocultural perspective to examine parental lessons in the home, views of institutionalized education, and the role of beliefs, identity, and life experience that contribute to the early years of a child’s education. This study address gaps in the research related to migrant farmworker families with young children in early childhood education programs.

Using Photovoice with Farmworker Children and Youth

In a sample of twenty-five farmworker children and youth of Mexican origin, six to seventeen years of age, 50 percent responded that they felt “depressed” and “sad” much or most of the time. They said that their parents’ long hours and harsh working conditions as seasonal farmworkers were a constant source of anxiety and stress. The children also expressed a sense of vulnerability due to the risk of losing an undocumented parent through arrest, detention, and deportation. We used photovoice, which emphasizes community participation through documentary photography for the purpose of social action, to enable the children to explore their own thoughts and emotions. We were particularly interested in what the indicators of the five-item CES‑D scale meant for the farmworking children in our sample. Children’s optimal development depends on a sense of security and belonging within both family and community. For parents, teachers, and the community at large, the photovoice project helped raised awareness of the struggles faced by farmworker youth and the mental health consequences. The results of our pilot study raise important questions about the likely mental health effects of the anti-immigrant rhetoric and policies being pursued by the new Trump administration.

Visual impairment and eye disease among children of migrant farmworkers

Visual impairment and eye disease among children of migrant farmworkers

El Campo: Educational Attainment and Educational Well-Being for Farmworker Children

Farmworkers comprise a marginalized population who experience various threats to their well-being. This study presents a community-based participatory research project that explored the educational attainment and well-being of Latino/a youth in farmworker families. Children of farmworkers ( n = 18), farmworker parents ( n = 12), and educational service providers ( n = 8) in South Florida participated in focus groups. Two follow-up interviews deepened our understanding of focus group data. Using conventional content analysis, six themes emerged. Applying a public health ecological framework to the analysis and conceptualization of these findings, we shift the focus from merely describing facets associated with educational attainment to an examination of the optimal conditions required to produce educational well-being. Future research should include perspectives from educators, policy leaders, and activists.

Migrant Students’ Emergent Conscientization Through Critical, Socioculturally Responsive Literacy Pedagogy

This article analyzes data from a summer literacy program for intermediate and middle-level children of migrant farmworkers. The program was grounded in a sociocultural perspective on literacy, stressing the importance of interaction and collaboration within socioculturally responsive pedagogy, using enabling literature to empower students. Adaptations of readers’ and writers’ workshop methods, emphasizing the significance of valuing students’ individual responses, were used throughout. The students were presented with a documentary, young adult novels, and more than two dozen children’s picture storybooks representing the lives of migrant farmworkers. Then, using their own responses to these enabling mentor texts as scaffolding, the students collaborated to create illustrated narratives about growing up as migrants. The program provided a safe space that encouraged migrant students to express their experiences and concerns—normally silenced in classrooms—during literacy tasks and empowered them to ask for support. The program demonstrated the benefits of combining socioculturally responsive critical literacy pedagogy with enabling instructional materials in the development of emergent conscientization among the students. Finally, this article shows how the migrant students’ perspectives and experiences can inform and challenge teachers, citizens, and policy makers to address the systemic injustices in the lives of migrant children.