Fairy Rings Research Articles

Macromycetes of meadows in Pieniny National Park

The investigations were performed in the years 1968-1972 in the area of forest meadows (<i>Anthvllido-Triofolietum</i> and <i>Nardetum strictae</i>) on northern mountain slopes in Pieniny National Park. The phenological seasons were distinguished during the year. Attention was paid to the problem of fairy rings and to fungi which form them. The effects of atmospheric conditions on the fruiting of meadow fungi were examined. On 9 sample plots quantitative investigations were performed. Differences in the course of yearly fruiting of fungi between years poor in rainfall and normal ones were demonstrated. The degree of abundance of particular species of fungi was determined by index method of Perkal. The mycoflora of the examined association and the content of mycoflora of Pieniny meadows with meadow fungi of other mountain zones in Poland were compared.

Annual increase of "fairy rings" in a meadow in the neighbourhood of Muszyna

The increase of "fairy rings" in a meadow in the? neighbourhood of Muszyna (distr. Nowy Sącz) is described. The observations vere conducted in 1972-1981. Rings were marked only by a zone of stimulated vegetation without any fruit-bodies. The fungus species causing the rings remained unknown.

Trichoderma songyi sp. nov., a new species associated with the pine mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake).

A new species, Trichoderma songyi, was found to be associated with the pine mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake) in Korea. This species was isolated from three different substrates: Tricholoma matsutake basidiomata, as well as roots of Pinus densiflora and soil in the fairy ring. Based on its molecular and phenotypic characteristics, we demonstrate that Trichoderma songyi is unique and distinguishable from closely related species. We performed phylogenetic analyses based on two molecular markers, the genes for both translation elongation factor 1-alpha and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II. Phylogenetic analyses showed that Trichoderma songyi is closely related to Trichoderma koningii aggregate and Trichoderma caerulescens. Morphologically, Trichoderma songyi can be distinguished from these closely related taxa by its growth rates, colony morphology on PDA in darkness, and coconut-like odour. Due to the economic importance of the pine mushroom, the relationship between Trichoderma songyi and Tricholoma matsutake should be studied further.

국내 잔디 재배지 주요 병해 발생 및 병원균 밀도 조사

본 연구에서는 2013년 잔디 재배지에서 발생하는 병해와 Rhizoctonia spp. 밀도를 조사하였다. 진주포장에서 갈색퍼짐병(Large patch)이 35% 발생하였고, 9월에 녹병이 발생하였다. 갈색마름병은 남해지역에서 9월과 10월을 거쳐 발생하였으며 7월 초 피시움잎마름병이 대발생 하였고, 동전마름병(Dollar spot)의 경우 전체 면적에 3%에 달하는 면적이 심각하게 피해를 입은 포장도 있는 것으로 조사되었다. 진주 대평에서 페어리링과 갈색퍼짐병이 발생하였다. 전북고창에서는 페어리링과 테이크올패치가 나타났으며 충북청주에서는 다수의 포장에서 갈색마름병이 관찰되었다. 경기평택에서는 갈색마름병, 도열병, 썸머패취, 커브라리아엽고병, 커브라리아엽고병과 녹조의 복합피해가 나타났다. 전염원 밀도는 장성, 진주, 산청과 남해지역 모두 시간이 지날수록 증가하는 것으로 나타났다. 병 발생과 병원균을 조사한 결과 골프코스에서 나타나는 병해와 유사한 것으로 나타났다. We investigated turfgrass diseases and inoculum density at nationwide turfgrass cultivation sites in year of 2013. Occurrences of large patch and rust disease appeared in September. Brown patch recorded in September to October at Namhea and Pythium blight disease occurred outbreaks in early July at Namhea site. Some sites in Namhea damaged 3% area of total cultivation field by Sclerotinia homoeocarp. In Daepyeong (Gyeongnam), Fairy ring and large patch were recorded. Severe takeall and fairy ring have been observed in Gochang-si. Multi-site in Cheongju-si, brown patch was observed in pandemic level. Interesting enough, a cool-season turfgrass cultivate sites in Pyeongtaek-si brown patch, leaf blast, summer patch, and Curvularia leaf spot were investigated during the surveys period. Inoculum densities (Rhizoctonia spp.) at turfgrass cultivations sites were increased as cumulatively in all survey sites. The investigation result indicated that the disease occurrence and pathogens are similar as diseases in golf courses.

2-Azahypoxanthine and imidazole-4-carboxamide produced by the fairy-ring-forming fungus increase wheat yield

Two-year field examinations to see effects of the principle components of a fungus causing “fairy rings” phenomena on lawns, 2-azahypoxanthine (AHX) and imidazole-4-carboxamide (ICA), on wheat were performed. The treatment of AHX or ICA was performed, in the early (seedling treatment, seed soaking treatment) and late (field treatment) developmental stages, and the resulting number of ears and grain weight per plant increased. AHX treatment increased the number of ears before tillering and ICA treatment increased the number after tillering. The high temperature during tillering stage in 2011 was a stress condition for wheat production in fields. The results indicated that AHX and ICA increased number of tillers and then number of ears, resulting in the increase of the grain yield even though under high-temperature stress.

The Source of “Fairy Rings”: 2‐Azahypoxanthine and its Metabolite Found in a Novel Purine Metabolic Pathway in Plants

Rings or arcs of fungus-stimulated plant growth occur worldwide; these are commonly referred to as "fairy rings". In 2010, we discovered 2-azahypoxanthine (AHX), a compound responsible for the fairy-ring phenomenon caused by fungus; AHX stimulated the growth of all the plants tested. Herein, we reveal the isolation and structure determination of a common metabolite of AHX in plants, 2-aza-8-oxohypoxanthine (AOH). AHX is chemically synthesized from 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide (AICA), and AHX can be converted into AOH by xanthine oxidase. AICA is one of the members of the purine metabolic pathway in animals, plants, and microorganisms. However, further metabolism of AICA remains elusive. Based on these results and facts, we hypothesized that plants themselves produce AHX and AOH through a pathway similar to the chemical synthesis. Herein, we demonstrate the existence of endogenous AHX and AOH and a novel purine pathway to produce them in plants.

The Source of “Fairy Rings”: 2‐Azahypoxanthine and its Metabolite Found in a Novel Purine Metabolic Pathway in Plants

AbstractRings or arcs of fungus‐stimulated plant growth occur worldwide; these are commonly referred to as “fairy rings”. In 2010, we discovered 2‐azahypoxanthine (AHX), a compound responsible for the fairy‐ring phenomenon caused by fungus; AHX stimulated the growth of all the plants tested. Herein, we reveal the isolation and structure determination of a common metabolite of AHX in plants, 2‐aza‐8‐oxohypoxanthine (AOH). AHX is chemically synthesized from 5‐aminoimidazole‐4‐carboxamide (AICA), and AHX can be converted into AOH by xanthine oxidase. AICA is one of the members of the purine metabolic pathway in animals, plants, and microorganisms. However, further metabolism of AICA remains elusive. Based on these results and facts, we hypothesized that plants themselves produce AHX and AOH through a pathway similar to the chemical synthesis. Herein, we demonstrate the existence of endogenous AHX and AOH and a novel purine pathway to produce them in plants.

“フェアリーリング”の化学と“フェアリー化合物”の植物成長調節剤としての可能性

公園，ゴルフ場，住宅街などで，芝が輪状に周囲より色濃く繁茂し，時には成長が抑制されたり枯れたりし，後にキノコが発生する現象は「フェアリーリング（fairy ring，妖精の輪）」と呼ばれている．筆者らは，フェアリーリングを形成するコムラサキシメジが産生するフェアリーの正体（芝を繁茂させる原因）が2-アザヒポキサンチン（AHX）とイミダゾール-4-カルボキシアミド（ICA）であることを突き止めた．また，植物中でのAHXの代謝産物，2-アザ-8-オキソヒポキサンチン（AOH）を得ることにも成功した．これらの化合物（フェアリー化合物）は試したあらゆる植物に活性を示すことから，筆者は「これらの化合物は植物自身も作り出しているのでは？」と考えた．そして，それを証明し植物体内での生合成経路も明らかにした．フェアリー化合物はさまざまな作物の収量を増加させ，農業への応用が期待される．

Porous medium coffee ring effect and other factors affecting the first crystallisation time of sodium chloride at the surface of a drying porous medium

We study the distribution of ions in a drying porous medium up to the formation of first crystals at the surface. The study is based on comparisons between numerical simulations and experiments with packings of glass beads. The experimental configuration, which is representative of many previous drying experiments, is characterized by the formation of an efflorescence fairy ring at the surface of the porous medium. The preferential formation of crystals at the periphery is explained by the combined effect of higher evaporation fluxes at the surface periphery, as in the classical coffee ring problem, and variations in the porosity near the wall bordering the packing. It is shown that both effects have a great impact on the time marking the occurrence of first crystals, which is referred to as the first crystallization time. The experiments indicate that the first crystallization time increases with a decreasing bead size for a given initial ion concentration. This is explained by the variation with bead size of the characteristic size of the near wall region where a preferential desaturation of the sample occurs as a result of the porosity increase near the wall. The study also reveals a significant salt supersaturation effect. This represents a noticeable fact in relation with salt weathering issues.

Eelgrass fairy rings: sulfide as inhibiting agent

Distinct ‘fairy rings’ consisting of narrow fringes of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) expand radially over a bottom of chalk plates outside the calcium carbonate cliffs of the island of Mon, Denmark. We conducted a survey to evaluate possible explanations for the formation of the rings and, more specifically, for the apparent die-off of eelgrass shoots on the inner side of the rings. The fairy rings were up to 15 m in diameter consisting of 0.3- to 1-m-wide zones of sea grass shoots at densities of up to 1,200 shoots m−2 and rooted in an up to 10-cm-thick sediment layer. On the outer side, shoots expanded over the bare chalk plates. On the inner side, shoots were smaller, had lower absolute and specific leaf growth, shoot density was lower and the sediment eroded leaving the bare chalk with scattered boulders behind. Sediment organic matter and nutrients and tissue nutrient contents were not different among positions. Sediment pools of acid volatile sulfides and chromium-reducible sulfur increased from outer to the middle positions of the rings, and so did total sulfur content of eelgrass tissues, while tissue δ34S isotope ratios, regardless of position in the fringes, were low reflecting substantial invasion of sulfide from the sediment. Neither the clonal growth pattern of eelgrass, sediment burial of shoots, hydrodynamic forcing nor nutrient limitation could explain the ring-shaped pattern. We conclude that the most likely explanation must be found in invasion of eelgrass shoots by toxic sulfide accumulating in the sediment due to low iron availability in the carbonate-rich environment.

Metagenomic Analysis of Fungal Communities Inhabiting the Fairy Ring Zone of Tricholoma matsutake

Tricholoma matsutake, an ectomycorrhiza that has mutual relationships with the rootlet of Pinus denisflora, forms a fruiting body that serves as a valuable food in Asia. However, the artificial culture of this fungus has not been successful. Soil fungi, including T. matsutake, coexist with many other microorganisms and plants; therefore, complex microbial communities have an influence on the fruiting body formation of T. matsutake. Here, we report on the structures of fungal communities associated with the fairy ring of T. matsutake through the pyrosequencing method. Soil samples were collected inside the fairy ring zone, in the fairy ring zone, and outside the fairy ring zone. A total of 37,125 sequencing reads were obtained and 728 to 1,962 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) were observed in the sampling zones. The fairy ring zone had the lowest OTUs and the lowest fungal diversity of all sampling zones. The number of OTUs and fungal taxa inside and outside the fairy ring zone was, respectively, about 2 times and 1.5 times higher than the fairy ring. Taxonomic analysis showed that each sampling zone has different fungal communities. In particular, out of 209 genera total, 6 genera in the fairy ring zone, such as Hemimycena, were uniquely present and 31 genera, such as Mycena, Boletopsis, and Repetophragma, were specifically absent. The results of metagenomic analysis based on the pyrosequencing indicate a decrease of fungal communities in the fairy ring zone and changes of fungal communities depending on the fairy ring growth of T. matsutake.

An Atoll Variant That Mocks

Awoman presented as an urgent referral to the interstitial lung disease clinic with dyspnea and a cutaneous rash of several weeks’ duration. Skin biopsy revealed a hypersensitivity vasculitis and chest radiograph revealed multiple pulmonary nodules, many of which were found to contain central cavitation on computed tomography (CT) scan. On basilar slices (Figure 1A), a set of “atoll signs” (Figure 1B) appeared to spell the word “COP,” suggesting the diagnosis. Lung biopsy demonstrated eosinophilic pneumonia with nonnecrotizing vasculitis, but without evidence for granulomas or organizing pneumonia (Figures 1C–1F). The patient responded dramatically to prednisone, but after tapering developed cardiomyopathy and renal infarcts, which were consistent with generalized eosinophilic vasculitis with Churg-Strauss–like features. She is currently stable on Cytoxan and mycophenolate mofetil. The atoll sign, also known as the “reverse halo sign” or “fairy ring” sign, refers to a crescentic or ring-shaped opacity surrounding an area of ground-glass opacification (1). It derives its name from the aerial appearance of an atoll, a coral island partially or completely surrounding a central lagoon (Figure 1B). The atoll sign was first described in patients with cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (2, 3) and was originally believed to be specific for that diagnosis (4). However, this CT appearance has since been reported in a large number of pulmonary disorders, including granulomatosis with angiitis (5), lymphomatoid granulomatosis (6), sarcoidosis, zygomycosis, histoplasmosis, aspergillus, Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia, nonspecific interstitial pneumonia, pulmonary paracoccidioidomyocosis, and radiofrequency ablation. In addition to this being the first report of the atoll sign in a patient with eosinophilic pneumonia with vasculitis, the CT pattern in our patient is unique in that it seems to mock our early reliance on the atoll sign as a specific diagnostic biomarker for cryptogenic organizing pneumonia.

Effects of Agaricus lilaceps Fairy Rings on Soil Aggregation and Microbial Community Structure in Relation to Growth Stimulation of Western Wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) in Eastern Montana Rangeland

Stimulation of plant productivity caused by Agaricus fairy rings has been reported, but little is known about the effects of these fungi on soil aggregation and the microbial community structure, particularly the communities that can bind soil particles. We studied three concentric zones of Agaricus lilaceps fairy rings in Eastern Montana that stimulate western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii): outside the ring (OUT), inside the ring (IN), and stimulated zone adjacent to the fungal fruiting bodies (SZ) to determine (1) soil aggregate proportion and stability, (2) the microbial community composition and the N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase activity associated with bulk soil at 0-15 cm depth, (3) the predominant culturable bacterial communities that can bind to soil adhering to wheatgrass roots, and (4) the stimulation of wheatgrass production. In bulk soil, macroaggregates (4.75-2.00 and 2.00-0.25 mm) and aggregate stability increased in SZ compared to IN and OUT. The high ratio of fungal to bacteria (fatty acid methyl ester) and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase activity in SZ compared to IN and OUT suggest high fungal biomass. A soil sedimentation assay performed on the predominant isolates from root-adhering soil indicated more soil-binding bacteria in SZ than IN and OUT; Pseudomonas fluorescens and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia isolates predominated in SZ, whereas Bacillus spp. isolates predominated in IN and OUT. This study suggests that growth stimulation of wheatgrass in A. lilaceps fairy rings may be attributed to the activity of the fungus by enhancing soil aggregation of bulk soil at 0-15 cm depth and influencing the amount and functionality of specific predominant microbial communities in the wheatgrass root-adhering soil.

Forest Fairy Ring Fungi <i>Clitocybe nebularis</i>, Soil <i>Bacillus</i> spp., and Plant Extracts Exhibit <i>in Vitro</i> Antagonism on Dieback <i>Phytophthora</i> Species

In vitro Kirby-Bauer disc-diffusion assays coupled with bio-imaging software techniques were used to assess native forest dwelling “fairy ring” forming fungi (Clitocybe nebularis) and co-habitant forest tree-root colonising non pathogenic, antibiotic producing bacteria (Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus pumilis) for their antagonism towards Japanese larch dieback oomycetes phytopathogens which also affects ornamental alternative hosts. The aqueous extracts of C. nebularis exhibited the highest clearance (inhibitory) zone of 21.4 × 105 pixels = 573%) against Phytophthora ramorum than growth/clear zone Cartesian integrates recorded in untreated (control) disc (3.7 × 105 pixels = 100%) over 3-day incubation. The fairy ring fungal extracts also exhibited substantive antagonism against P. kernoviae (147%), P. lateralis (347%) and a solanaceous crop infecting P. infestans (86%). Quite encouragingly, the soil oomycete phytopathogen P. ramorum was inhibited strongly (mean ~ 177%) by both forest bacilli. Aqueous extracts of non-forest antifungal herbaceous plants (garlic and elderberry) expressed similar inhibitory effects (mean ~ 70%). A seaweed fungal elicitor component fucoidan showed moderate levels (mean ~ 85%) of antagonism against P. ramorum, P. kernoviae, P. lateralis and P. infestans. The results in this in vitro study highlight the intensity and vigor of antagonistic forest microflora and non-forest herbaceous antifungal agents such as garlic and other plant extracts as serious candidates for suppression of the oomycete Phytophthora pathogenic fungi in forest soils. This study calls for urgent scoping and impact assessment studies in pot experiments and mini-plot forest trials to gauge the fitness of these natural resources for field level potential biotechnological applications to combat the devastating dieback disease in the native woodlands and horticulture.

Enigmatic sedimentary structures in the Lower Old Red Sandstone, south Wales, UK: possible microbial influence on surface processes and early terrestrial food webs

AbstractSeveral enigmatic sedimentary structures are present in Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian terrestrial rocks of south Wales. These are millimetre ripples, wrinkle structures, ‘cauliflower’ and ‘molehill’ structures, calcretized matgrounds, ‘pepper-pots’ and ‘fairy rings’. Most of the structures occur on fine-grained sandstone bedding surfaces in both inclined and non-inclined red heterolithic deposits that form a large part of the Lower Old Red Sandstone in south Wales. These deposits consist of conspicuous units up to 3 m thick, comprising millimetre- to centimetre-scale laminasets of alternating mudstone and fine-grained sandstone, interpreted as muddy point bars on ephemeral channel margins, crevasse-splay lobes or distal flood-out deposits from ephemeral flow. They are rich in trace fossils reflecting animal locomotion, burrowing, foraging, ploughing and resting. Millimetre ripples and wrinkle structures are related to rapid growth of cyanobacterial mats on wet sediment surfaces, especially in films of standing water, that may have been a critical constituent of the food chain for terrestrial communities. Pustular ‘cauliflower’ and ‘molehill’ structures are preserved on tuffs and have been linked to algal blooms formed following an increase in nutrients due to ashfall into floodplain ponds. The tuffs are associated with a diverse ichnofauna indicating that opportunist colonizers took advantage of an abundant food source.

Evaluation of Preventive Fungicide Applications for Fairy Ring Control in Golf Putting Greens and In Vitro Sensitivity of Fairy Ring Species to Fungicides.

Fairy ring species induce symptoms on putting greens mostly indirectly, by modifying the soil physical or chemical properties. Therefore, preventive rather than curative fungicide applications may be more effective in managing fairy ring. Two field experiments were conducted on a creeping bentgrass research green to evaluate fairy ring control from preventive fungicide applications. A 3-year study investigated the optimal rate and soil temperature-based timing of a preventive application of triadimefon and tebuconazole. A 2-year study evaluated the impact of irrigation timing and fungicide + surfactant tank mixtures on the efficacy of preventive applications of triadimefon and triticonazole. Fungicide-treated plots in both studies exhibited less fairy ring severity than untreated plots. Data suggest that a 5-day average soil temperature range of 13 to 16°C may be suitable for initiating preventive applications. Symptoms occurred earlier in plots treated with a surfactant tank mix than in those treated with fungicide alone. Irrigation timing had no effect on fungicide performance. The sensitivity of 16 isolates representing major fairy ring species to flutolanil, propiconazole, tebuconazole, triadimefon, and triticonazole was determined with a mycelial growth assay. No significant differences in fungicide sensitivity were detected among species. Isolates had significantly higher 50% effective concentration values for triadimefon than for the other fungicides tested.

Detecting nonculturable bacteria in the active mycorrhizal zone of the pine mushroom Tricholoma matsutake

The fungus Tricholoma matsutake forms an ectomycorrhizal relationship with pine trees. Its sporocarps often develop in a circle, which is commonly known as a fairy ring. The fungus produces a solid, compact, white aggregate of mycelia and mycorrhizae beneath the fairy ring, which in Japanese is called a 'shiro'. In the present study, we used soil dilution plating and molecular techniques to analyze the bacterial communities within, beneath, and outside the T. matsutake fairy ring. Soil dilution plating confirmed previous reports that bacteria and actinomycetes are seldom present in the soil of the active mycorrhizal zone of the T. matsutake shiro. In addition, the results showed that the absence of bacteria was strongly correlated with the presence of T. matsutake mycorrhizae. The results demonstrate that bacteria, especially aerobic and heterotrophic forms, and actinomycetes, are strongly inhibited by T. matsutake. Indeed, neither bacteria nor actinomycetes were detected in 11.3% of 213 soil samples from the entire shiro area by culture-dependent methods. However, molecular techniques demonstrated that some bacteria, such as individual genera of Sphingomonas and Acidobacterium, were present in the active mycorrhizal zone, even though they were not detected in soil assays using the dilution plating technique.

The Fairy Ring, or Elsie and Frances Fool the World (review)

The Fairy Ring, or Elsie and Frances Fool the World (review)

Mushroom grows crops?—Chemical disclosure of “Fairy rings” and the possibility of practical use of the “fairy” in agriculture—

Mushroom grows crops?—Chemical disclosure of “Fairy rings” and the possibility of practical use of the “fairy” in agriculture—

Fairy rings caused by a killer fungus foster plant diversity in species‐rich grassland

AbstractQuestionsDoes the fairy ring fungus Agaricus campestris affects spatial distribution of co‐existing plant species? Is ring development related to changes of soil physical, chemical, enzymatic and microbiological properties? What are the causes of weakening and subsequent luxuriance of vegetation during fairy ring dynamics in the soil?LocationSpecies‐rich, mowed calcareous grassland, central Italy (43° 17′26″ N, 12° 51′29″ E).MethodsFairy rings were monitored for total plant biomass, species richness and composition in four zones: external grassland (OUT), fungal front (FF), area with flourishing vegetation (BELT) and internal grassland (IN). In each zone, 17 soil parameter were analysed: physical and chemical properties (water‐holding capacity, pH, electrical conductivity, organic C, Olsen P, total N, NH4+, NO3−, hydrophobicity and cyanide concentration), total enzyme activity (FDA) and microbiological features (community‐level physiological profile using BIOLOG EcoPlates™, microbial biomass, fungal mycelium, culturable actinomycetes, bacteria and fungi). A bioassay was performed to evaluate responses of three co‐existing species (Bromus erectus, Cynosurus echinatus and Centaurea ambigua) growing on soil collected from different fairy ring zones.ResultsPlant species composition dramatically changed in response to fairy ring development, with disappearance of most grassland species in the ring‐affected area. Plant biomass and species richness were higher in OUT and IN areas, and lowest in FF. Profound changes in soil properties occurred after fungal passage, with consistent reductions of C and N content and increases of FDA and microbial physiological profiles. Soil from the FF zone had remarkable increases of mineral N forms, electrical conductivity and hydrophobicity, with no trace of cyanide. The bioassay showed species‐specific responses to different soil types.ConclusionsThis study provides evidence that the spread of fairy ring fungi, coupled with a reduction of perennial plant cover, creates empty niches for many short‐lived species.