Fair Reward System Research Articles

Patenting and licensing in genetic testing

Patents for inventions can be beneficial for society, if they drive innovation and promote progress. In most areas, the patenting system works satisfactorily. However, it must be recognized that in some instances it can also be problematic; this is the case in the field of genetics, and particularly in the area of genetic testing. As patents should serve their original purpose (promoting innovation through a fair reward system for the inventors), the European Society of Human Genetics (ESHG) suggests ways to improve the mechanisms that already form part of the patents system as a whole. In brief, the ESHG recommends limiting the breadth of the claims in genetic patents and, more practically, to reduce the number of patents by limiting the patentable subject matter, thereby improving the quality of the patents that will eventually be granted. There is also a suggestion to redefine the concept of utility in patent law, by taking account of downstream clinical experience. The ESHG sees no harm in the patenting of novel technical tools for genetic testing (eg PCR or chip technologies), as they can promote investment and still allow for invention around them. Many disputes between supporters of the patenting system and the public revolve around ethical issues. The European Patent Office should consider the benefit of having an ethics committee to consider issues of major interest, such as patents applied to genes. The problem of licensing should also be addressed. Practically, this means supporting the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines, which prescribe that licenses should be non-exclusive and easily obtainable, both in practical and in financial terms. To promote this, the practical exploration of alternative models for licensing, like patent pools and clearinghouses, is a prerequisite. To better track developments in this field, the establishment of a voluntary reporting system, whereby geneticists could report on any issues related to new and/or old patents or licenses in the light of service provision to patients, would be worthwhile. Finally, the ESHG is calling upon all stakeholders to start the process of developing a code of conduct for partners with patents, covering ethical aspects as well as smooth licensing arrangements.

Management of change in health care organisations and human resource role

The paper is focused on the analysis of the most relevant factors necessary to manage change in health care organisations. The approach suggested is the Stakeholder one. According to this approach, the hospital’s managers seem to be successful if they are able to satisfy people (internal and external stakeholders) that have a stake in the health care institution. The attention of the author is mainly focused on the internal forces that make the health care sector competitive and successful. In order to motivate internal human resources to accept change and to achieve the organisational targets two main methods can be suggested. The former is based on tangible variables and in particular on a fair reward system; the latter is built on intangible elements e.g. communication, negotiation, contracting, and organisational values sharing. Moreover, in order to cope with change it is important to develop the information technology management and to reengineer delivery processes, taking into consideration both the costs and benefits of these kinds of innovations.