Facing Water Scarcity Research Articles

Enhancing Dewpoint Indirect Evaporative Cooling with Intermittent Water Spraying and Advanced Materials: A Review

Dewpoint indirect evaporative cooling (DIEC) offers an energy-efficient, eco-friendly alternative to conventional air conditioning by using water and air to lower temperatures. With the rising demand for sustainable cooling solutions—especially in regions facing water scarcity and high energy costs—optimizing these systems for real-world conditions is more important than ever. One major challenge is ensuring that DIEC systems perform well when water is supplied intermittently rather than continuously. In this review, we examine how intermittent water supply affects the cooling performance and overall efficiency of DIEC systems. We discuss recent studies that highlight the importance of key factors such as the properties of heat exchanger materials, design modifications, and control strategies. Our analysis reveals that while innovative materials like hydrophilic membranes and adaptive design features can improve performance, their widespread use is often limited by cost and scalability. We also point out critical research gaps, particularly in applying intermittent water spraying to non-porous heat exchangers. Overall, our findings underscore the need for integrated water management strategies in DIEC design. We advocate a cross-disciplinary approach—bridging fluid dynamics, material science, and environmental engineering—to develop more resilient and sustainable cooling technologies.

Pakistan’s Urban Water Challenges and Prospects

Cities in Pakistan are increasingly faced with problems of erratic supply of piped water and unsafe and declining levels of groundwater. Additionally, over one-third (35 to 40 percent) of piped water is wasted through leakages and theft in the water distribution networks.[1] By 2050, the country’s urban population is expected to double in size (from 81 million in 2022 to 160 million in 2050 or from 37.7 percent of the total population to 52.2 percent) (see table 1). Providing water for these citizens is a challenging task; finding money to pay for the provision of that water is at least as daunting. Urban water tariffs are low and infrequently adjusted, even with current efforts at reform. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Pakistan is rapidly urbanising. From 1980 to 2022, the Pakistani population living in cities increased from 21.9 million (28.1 percent) to 81.4 million (37.7 percent) and is projected to reach 160.2 million (52.2 percent) by 2050 (table 1). At present, a majority of Pakistan’s urban population faces water scarcity—water demand exceeding water supply. Declining groundwater, expanding populations, aging infrastructure and changing weather patterns have placed significant pressure on water supplies. Population growth, urbanisation, and socioeconomic development are expected to increase urban water demand by over 100 percent by 2050 (Figure 1). Climate change will also affect the spatial distribution and timing of water availability. As a result, urban water scarcity is likely to become much more serious in the future. Pakistan’s urban population facing water scarcity is projected to increase from 39.9 million (57 percent of Pakistani urban population) in 2016 to 97.5 million people (61 percent of Pakistani urban population) in 2050.

Pakistan’s Urban Water Challenges and Prospects

Cities in Pakistan are increasingly faced with problems of erratic supply of piped water and unsafe and declining levels of groundwater. Additionally, over one-third (35 to 40 percent) of piped water is wasted through leakages and theft in the water distribution networks.[1] By 2050, the country’s urban population is expected to double in size (from 81 million in 2022 to 160 million in 2050 or from 37.7 percent of the total population to 52.2 percent) (see table 1). Providing water for these citizens is a challenging task; finding money to pay for the provision of that water is at least as daunting. Urban water tariffs are low and infrequently adjusted, even with current efforts at reform. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Pakistan is rapidly urbanising. From 1980 to 2022, the Pakistani population living in cities increased from 21.9 million (28.1 percent) to 81.4 million (37.7 percent) and is projected to reach 160.2 million (52.2 percent) by 2050 (table 1). At present, a majority of Pakistan’s urban population faces water scarcity—water demand exceeding water supply. Declining groundwater, expanding populations, aging infrastructure and changing weather patterns have placed significant pressure on water supplies. Population growth, urbanisation, and socioeconomic development are expected to increase urban water demand by over 100 percent by 2050 (Figure 1). Climate change will also affect the spatial distribution and timing of water availability. As a result, urban water scarcity is likely to become much more serious in the future. Pakistan’s urban population facing water scarcity is projected to increase from 39.9 million (57 percent of Pakistani urban population) in 2016 to 97.5 million people (61 percent of Pakistani urban population) in 2050.

Bridging the sanitation gap: Progress and inequality in Arab countries of the MENA region.

Countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region face water scarcity concerns and challenges to treating wastewater and providing sustainable and equitable sanitation services to the over 500 million people living in 17 identified countries. This study evaluates trends in sanitation access, the percentage of wastewater treated versus collected, equity in service access across wealth quintiles, and the sustainability of services using per capita wastewater production data. The findings reveal that while there have been improvements in access to safely managed sanitation services from 2000 to 2022, the current rate of progress is insufficient to meet Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.2 by 2030 in 13 countries. Notably, although wastewater is often safely collected, less than 50% is safely treated in seven of the eleven countries with available data. The study highlights significant disparities in sanitation access, with wealthier populations having better access to basic services, while poorer communities experience higher rates of open defecation. Additionally, the projected increase in wastewater production due to population growth and the push for universal access to safely managed services will require substantial improvements in treatment capacity. These insights are crucial for policymakers, underscoring the need for resilient infrastructure to achieve SDG 6.2 by 2030 while addressing ongoing equity and sustainability challenges in the region.

Public perceptions of water scarcity in China: insights from an online survey of 3262 responses

ABSTRACT Freshwater is increasingly abstracted beyond sustainable levels in many watersheds worldwide. Is the public aware of this water scarcity challenge? This study investigated public perceptions of water scarcity and how individual characteristics influence these perceptions using an ordinal logistic regression model. Based on 3262 online survey responses, we found that participants tend to underestimate water scarcity, contrasting the fact that over half of the cities in China face water scarcity. High-income tap water users are more likely to underestimate water scarcity than low-income non-tap water users. Understanding these perceptions is critical for promoting water-saving practices and developing effective mitigation strategies.

Geospatial mapping and cluster analysis of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in drinking water of semi-arid areas.

Ensuring universal access to safe drinking water remains a global challenge, especially in semi-arid regions facing water scarcity, pollution, inadequate infrastructure, and rapid urbanization. The present study aimed to assess drinking water quality by analysing antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli (E. coli) and their spatial distribution, identifying contamination hotspots using integrated physicochemical, microbial, and advanced geospatial assessments on 122 samples collected from surface and groundwater of semi-arid areas with key physicochemical parameters analysed using standard methods. Microbial contamination was assessed through heterotrophic plate counts and coliform tests, detecting E. coli (n = 83 isolates) that underwent antibiotic susceptibility testing via the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method against eleven antibiotics. Results showed that several key physicochemical (total dissolved solids, alkalinity, fluoride, and calcium) and microbial parameters exceeded WHO permissible limits. Correlation analysis revealed significant relationships among water quality indicators in both water sources. Advanced geospatial techniques, including Empirical Bayesian Kriging and Getis-Ord Gi cluster analysis, enabled spatial interpolation of studied parameters and identified significant antibiotic-resistant E. coli clusters in 15 wards. The antibiogram showed high resistance levels, with 91.6% of isolates resistant to oxacillin, 83.1% to amoxicillin, and 63.9% to ciprofloxacin, complemented by the Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Index reaching up to 0.83 indicating a high risk of contamination. Spatial-cluster analysis pinpointed high-risk areas exhibiting significant antibiotic-resistant E. coli clusters. This integrated approach underscores the urgent need for improved water treatment, antimicrobial resistance surveillance, and infrastructure upgrades to mitigate contamination risks in drinking water systems of rapidly urbanizing semi-arid regions worldwide.

Productive, Physiological, and Soil Microbiological Responses to Severe Water Stress During Fruit Maturity in a Super High-Density European Plum Orchard.

The super high-density (SHD) production system has recently been introduced to the Chilean European plum (Prunus domestica L.) industry, but the potential of applying regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) in this system remains unexplored. As irrigation water availability in Chile has been strongly jeopardized by climate change, there is an urgent need to validate water-conserving practices in modern production systems. A field study was conducted in a commercial SHD European plum orchard (cv. French grafted on Rootpac-20 rootstock) for two consecutive seasons in Peralillo, O'Higgins Region, Chile. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of a late water deficit (LD) on water productivity, fruit quality, plant water relations, and soil microbiota. The results showed that implementing LD enhanced water productivity by 40% without compromising fresh and dry fruit quality. Moderate to severe water stress induced no changes in physiological parameters such as stomatal conductance and photochemical efficiency. Additionally, the LD treatment significantly reduced soil moisture but increased the abundance of certain groups of beneficial soil microbiota and fine roots. These results highlight the potential of LD as a viable water-conserving practice in modern SHD European plum orchards, particularly in regions facing water scarcity due to climate change.

Hydrogel Performance in Boosting Plant Resilience to Water Stress-A Review.

Hydrogels have emerged as a transformative technology in agriculture, offering significant potential to enhance crop resilience, improve water use efficiency, and promote sustainable farming practices. These three-dimensional polymeric networks can absorb and retain water, making them particularly valuable in regions facing water scarcity and unpredictable rainfall patterns. This review examines the types, properties, and applications of hydrogels in agriculture, highlighting their role in improving soil moisture retention, enhancing nutrient delivery by, and increasing crop yield. The discussion extends to the economic and environmental implications of hydrogel use, including their potential to reduce irrigation costs by and minimize soil erosion. The review also explores the latest innovations in hydrogel technology, such as smart hydrogels and biodegradable alternatives, which offer new possibilities for precision agriculture and environmental sustainability. Despite promising benefits, challenges such as the higher cost of synthetic hydrogels, environmental impact, and performance variability across different soil types remain. Addressing these challenges requires a multidisciplinary approach that integrates advancements in material science, agronomy, and environmental policy. The future outlook for hydrogels in agriculture is optimistic, with ongoing research poised to refine their applications and expand their use across diverse agricultural systems. By leveraging the capabilities of hydrogels, agriculture can achieve increase in productivity, ensure food security, and move towards a more sustainable and resilient agricultural landscape.

Assessing Shallow Groundwater Depth and Electrical Conductivity in the Brazilian Semiarid: A Geostatistical Analysis

The Brazilian semiarid region faces water scarcity, with alluvial aquifers playing a crucial role in agricultural water security. This study assesses the spatiotemporal variability of groundwater quantity and salinity, analyzing natural and anthropogenic impacts, including post-pandemic trends. The investigation was developed in the Mimoso Alluvial Valley (MAV), Pernambuco State, mainly used for communal irrigation supply. The spatiotemporal dynamics of land use (LUC) was performed based on data provided by Mapbiomas for the years 2012, 2016, 2019, and 2023. Geostatistical analysis was applied for mapping water table levels and salinity. Changes in LUC suggest possible forest regeneration influenced by climatic factors and anthropogenic pressure alleviation. Electrical conductivity (EC) and groundwater level (GWL) exhibited medium to high variability. Temporal trends highlight climatic influences, groundwater abstraction, and recharge/discharge dynamics. Pre-2019 years were classified as dry, whereas the 2019–2023 years ranged from rainy to extremely rainy, leading to lower EC and GWL variability in 2023. Additionally, the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily reduced agriculture, lowering salinity and aiding groundwater recovery. The spatial analysis revealed critical distribution patterns, highlighting the interaction between natural processes and human activities. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing irrigation and environmental strategies, supporting long-term groundwater sustainability in semiarid regions.

Investigation of hydrogeological structures in carbonate rock with ground penetrating radar

Carbonate rock aquifers are an important resource in the face of water scarcity. However, groundwater recharge processes are not fully understood in the heterogeneous matrix and fracture system. The shallow epikarst zone is important for drainage, transport and storage and needs to be investigated. Geophysical techniques are promising, particularly ground penetrating radar (GPR) due to its sensitivity to water saturation. To test the potential of GPR, hydrogeological structures were investigated in the Lower Muschelkalk of the Rüdersdorf limestone quarry near Berlin, Germany. A survey field was monitored under three different moisture conditions and the experiments included densely spaced zero offset GPR and common midpoint (CMP) profiles. The analysis focused on EM wave velocities as a proxy for water saturation, which were used for a relative comparison of the results from different methods. The more generic CMP results were significantly higher than the velocities from diffraction hyperbolas, which only represent the very local position. Structural observations from picked reflectors throughout the monitoring contributed to the interpretation. While the matrix appears to be unaffected by water variability, preferential flow paths can be identified. Diffraction hyperbolas may occur at fractured porous zones that preferentially store water and drain towards the bedding planes. Their spatial characteristics suggest that they may be precursors of potential sinkholes. The survey shows how GPR can help to understand hydrological processes in carbonate rock and locate relevant structures for further investigation. The collected dataset provides opportunities for further analysis.

Estimation of Silage Maize Plant Moisture Content Based on UAV Multispectral Data and Ensemble Learning Methods

Plant moisture content (PMC) serves as a crucial indicator of crop water status, directly affecting agricultural productivity, product quality, and the effectiveness of precision irrigation. Conventional methods for PMC assessment predominantly rely on destructive sampling techniques, which are labor-intensive and impede real-time monitoring. This study investigates silage maize cultivated in the Hexi region of China, leveraging multispectral data acquired via an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to estimate PMC across different phenological stages. A stacked ensemble learning framework was developed, integrating Back Propagation Neural Network (BPNN), Random Forest Regression (RFR), and Support Vector Regression (SVR), with Partial Least Squares Regression (PLSR) employed for feature fusion. The findings indicate that incorporating vegetation indices into spectral variables significantly improved prediction performance. The standalone models demonstrated coefficient of determination (R2) values ranging from 0.43 to 0.69, with root mean square error (RMSE) spanning 0.61% to 1.43%. In contrast, the ensemble model exhibited superior accuracy, achieving R2 values between 0.61 and 0.87 and RMSE values from 0.54% to 1.38%. This methodology offers a scalable, non-invasive alternative for PMC estimation, facilitating data-driven irrigation optimization in regions facing water scarcity.

Evaluating the Impact of Nano-Silica and Silica Hydrogel Amendments on Soil Water Retention and Crop Yield in Rice and Clover Under Variable Irrigation Conditions

The use of water-efficient soil amendments has gained increasing importance in agriculture, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. So, this study evaluates the impact of silica and nano-silica hydrogels on soil water retention, crop yield, and crop water productivity under variable irrigation regimes. Using a randomized complete block design with furrow irrigation, the experiment tested different hydrogel application rates and irrigation levels in rice (Oryza sativa L.) and clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) across two growing seasons. Statistical tests, including ANOVA and t-tests, confirm that nano-silica hydrogel significantly improves soil properties, yield, and crop water productivity (CWP), especially at moderate irrigation levels (70–90% of water requirements). In the first season, nano-silica hydrogel enhanced rice yield, with a maximum yield of 10.76 tons ha−1 with 90% irrigation and 119 kg ha−1 of hydrogel compared with other treatments. In the second season, clover yields were also positively affected, with the highest fresh forage yield of 5.02 tons ha−1 with 90% irrigation and 119 kg ha−1 nano-silica hydrogel. Despite seasonal variation, nano-silica hydrogel consistently outperformed silica hydrogel in terms of improving soil water retention, reducing bulk density, and enhancing hydraulic conductivity across different irrigation levels. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed that nano-silica hydrogel significantly improved soil water retention properties, including the water-holding capacity (WHC), field capacity (FC), and available water (AW), and reduced the wilting point (WP). These improvements, in turn, led to increased crop yield and water productivity, particularly at moderate irrigation levels (70–90% of the crop’s total water requirements. These findings highlight the potential of nano-silica hydrogel as an effective amendment for improving soil water retention, enhancing crop productivity, and increasing crop water productivity under reduced irrigation conditions.

Nitrogen and Phosphorus Stoichiometry of Bolboschoenus planiculmis Plants in Soda-Alkali Wetlands Undergoing Agricultural Drainage Water Input in a Semi-Arid Region.

In semi-arid regions, wetlands often face water scarcity, salinity, and alkalinity stresses. Agricultural drainage water has been used to restore degraded wetlands, but it alters water quality and plant growth and resource distribution. Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) stoichiometry reflect plant resource strategies. In China's Songnen Plain, Bolboschoenus planiculmis, a key plant in soda-alkali wetlands and food for the rare white crane (Grus leucogeranus), is impacted by agricultural water input. However, the N and P stoichiometry in B. planiculmis and the influencing water variables remain unclear. This study analyzed N and P contents in B. planiculmis leaves, stems, tubers, and roots, and water variables. Results showed that leaf N content was highest, while tuber P content exceeded that of other organs. Leaf nitrogen to phosphorus (N:P) ratio was highest, and tuber's was the lowest. N and P contents in plants were positively correlated, except between roots and stems. Redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed water temperature (T), oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), N contents, and water depth (WD) as key factors influencing N and P stoichiometry. Structural equation models (SEMs) indicated water T negatively affected plant N, while water nitrate nitrogen positively affected it. Water P content directly influenced leaf and stem P, and ammonium nitrogen affected aboveground P accumulation. Water T and WD directly impacted N:P ratios. These findings show that while agricultural drainage water alleviated aridification and salinization in degraded soda-alkali wetlands, exogenous N and P inputs significantly affected vegetation's N and P utilization strategies.

Surveillance and environmental risk of very mobile pollutants in urban stormwater and rainwater in a water-stressed city.

Surveillance and environmental risk of very mobile pollutants in urban stormwater and rainwater in a water-stressed city.

Sustainable Recovery of Lead from Secondary Waste in Chloride Medium: A Review

Environmental regulations on lead recycling are becoming increasingly stringent, prompting the search for sustainable alternatives to conventional high-temperature processes. Hydrometallurgical methods in chloride media have emerged as a viable option for recovering lead from mining and urban wastes, including lead anode corrosion residues, zinc leaching residues, and spent lead–acid batteries. This study reviews the key conditions for lead recovery in chloride media, highlighting the variables that optimize lead dissolution, and the potential challenges associated with these processes. The findings indicate that efficient lead recovery requires high chloride concentrations, with acidity playing a critical role depending on the relative concentrations of lead and sulfate in the solution. When lead and sulfate concentrations are similar, stable lead–chloride complexes form within a pH range of 0 to 6.0. However, at higher sulfate concentrations, the pH range narrows significantly to 0 to 2.0, necessitating a more acidic environment for effective dissolution. Chloride media offer a distinct advantage through the formation of stable lead–chloride complexes, whose stability is influenced by chloride concentration, sulfate concentration, pH, and redox potential. Moreover, this approach provides a sustainable alternative that could integrate seawater into industrial processes, particularly in regions facing water scarcity.

Waterborne and foodborne diseases: The peril of expansion of wastewater reuse in Jordan and Lebanon

ABSTRACT As the Arab region faces water scarcity, many countries focus on increasing water reuse to address this crisis. However, the readiness and need for wastewater (WW) reuse in agricultural production vary depending on the country or region. Also, the contaminants present in WW vary with the sources of the effluents and the activities in the area where the WW is generated; while some countries have well-established water reuse systems in place, others are still in the early stages of development affected, among others, by inadequate infrastructure, technology, and regulations. In this paper, we discussed the current WW treatment management in Jordan and Lebanon, where agriculture plays a vital role in reuse. Despite their scarcity, we also reviewed available data on waterborne diseases in an attempt to underline the relationship between food- and waterborne diseases, the prevailing water and WW management practices in these countries, and the indispensable significance of implementing risk assessment protocols for the betterment of public health. Furthermore, we have addressed risk management, encompassing the requisite procedures for WW treatment and vigilant monitoring to guarantee compliance with the pertinent quality standards.

Moisture Harvesting by the Structure Regulation of Hygroscopic Hydrogel for Energy and Water Sustainability

AbstractWater and energy are the cornerstones of human development, with more than half of the world's population facing water scarcity issues. Atmospheric moisture is widely distributed around the globe, and the rational utilization of moisture can create tremendous value. Here, the sources of hygroscopic materials, methods of manufacturing hydrogels, properties of these hydrogels, and potential energy applications are concluded. To make the hydrogels with high hydrophilicity, ultrasonic oscillation, freeze drying, and spin coating can be used as the synthesis strategies. The main focus is on the characteristic parameters of hydrogels with water uptake, dehydration temperature, conductivity, mechanical stability, swelling behaviors, and heat transfer coefficient. These unique features will affect the performances of assembles, devices, and instruments. Subsequently, the potential applications of hydrogels are summarized, such as moisture harvesting and splitting with fuel production, dehumidification, thermal management in electronic devices, solar water evaporation, and electricity production. Finally, future directions and issues of interest are proposed to promote the diverse development of hydrogels and relational systems.

Effluent from Winery Waste Biorefinery: A Strategic Input for Biomass Generation with Different Objectives to Add Value in Arid Regions

Agro-industrial activities generate significant amounts of organic waste and a variety of effluents thus posing environmental challenges. Viticulture in Argentina, which covered 204,847 ha in 2023, faces water scarcity as a limiting factor conditioning its production. This industry produces large volumes of grape marc, sediments, and stalks, which can be valorised into products like alcohol, tartaric acid, and compost. However, these valorisation processes generate effluents with high organic load and salinity, further stressing water resources. This study explores the potential of utilising these effluents to cultivate plant biomass in arid regions (sorghum or perennial pasture), which could serve as bioenergy, animal feed, or composting co-substrates, contributing to circular bioeconomy principles. The combined use of effluent as a water resource and the sowing of sorghum and pasture increased soil organic matter content and led to a slight reduction in pH (depth: 0.30–0.60 m) compared to the control treatment. The sorghum plots showed better establishment and higher dry biomass yield (32.6 Tn/ha) compared to the pasture plots (6.5 Tn/ha). Sorghum demonstrated better tolerance to saline soils and high salinity effluents, aligning with previous studies. Although pasture had a lower biomass yield, it was more efficient in nutrient uptake, concentrating more NPK, ash, and soluble salts. Sorghum’s higher yield compensated for its lower nutrient concentration. For biomass production, sorghum is preferable, but if nutrient capture from effluents is prioritised, summer polyphytic pastures are more suitable. These results suggest that the final selection between plant biomass alternatives highly depends on whether the goal is biomass generation or nutrient capture.

A review of India's water policy and implementation toward a sustainable future

ABSTRACT India is one of the most significant economies globally, and the sustainable use of this priceless resource depends considerably on its water supplies. Moreover, a rural and monsoon-dependent nation faces water scarcity challenges, fueling potential conflicts among sectors and regions while intensifying challenges to food security and livelihoods. This paper conducts a chronological review of India's evolving water supply policies, assessing their impact, identifying gaps in policy implementation, and striving to provide insights for the country's future development of equal and sustainable access to water. In this context, integrating artificial intelligence (AI), particularly in smart water management systems, presents promising implications for improving water supply efficiency and optimizing service delivery processes, proving indispensable in addressing water-related challenges, particularly in regions like India. It could detect and mitigate water losses within distribution systems, providing practical water purification, distribution, and conservation solutions. This review paper also discovered that the Practical Integrated Water Resource Management approach emphasizes decentralized management of water resources and advocates for more efficient, context-specific, and locally tailored solutions for assessing the water resource system for implementing water policy. This approach further leads to minimizing the water scarcity problem in a particular area or region.

Seawater-mixed concretes containing supplementary cementitious materials: compressive strength, e-modulus, electrical resistivity, and life cycle assessment

Water and concrete are the materials humans consume the most on earth. By 2040, several countries are expected to face extreme water stress and the need for significant growth in their infrastructure simultaneously. Water is a fundamental ingredient for concrete production, and the need for infrastructure growth can further increase the water demand for concrete production and thus affect these regions facing water scarcity. Including supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), non-metallic fibres, and coated/polymer reinforcements can increase the feasibility of producing concrete with seawater (SW). There is a lack of information on the long-term strength and durability properties of SW-mixed concretes (SWC) produced with SCMs. This paper optimises binder compositions with CEM I, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag (slag), and metakaolin suitable for adapting SWC based on performance indicators. Binary and ternary blended concretes of similar binder content (360 kg/m3) and w/b (0.45) were designed and cast with the SCMs mentioned above. Compressive strength, surface resistivity, and accelerated carbonation tests were conducted on the concrete produced with freshwater (FW) and seawater (SW). SWC produced with 30% slag and 15% metakaolin had higher electrical resistivity and an improvement in compressive strength (up to 30%) than other combinations used for producing SWC. Life cycle assessment identified that the concretes produced with fly ash, and ternary combination of fly ash and metakaolin had the least water depletion potential (WDP) compared to other SW-mixed concretes. Also, the replacement of FW by SW reduces the WDP up to 50%.