Facial beauty has been cherished around the world and has captivated humans throughout history. Despite a series of attempts, however, it is still almost impossible to accurately define beauty. Its precise perception remains unanswered and is definitely partially subjective. Several disciplines have been studying facial beauty and attractiveness, including but not limited to philosophy, psychology, evolutionary physiology, sociology, neuroscience and cognitive sciences, computer imaging, human biology, and anatomy, as well as art history and plastic surgery. Each specialist approaches the topic from his/her own personal standpoint and expertise, thus adding another dimension to our perceptions regarding the definition of facial beauty. In addition, several geometric, mathematical formulas, grids, and canons (rules) were developed over the centuries in an effort to provide standardized explanations of facial beauty based on mathematical analysis of facial proportions. In this short review article, concepts of facial beauty are analyzed from historical, philosophical, and mathematical perspectives as well as from the standpoint of neuroesthetics and psychology. Current concepts in the era of social media and artificial intelligence, and their influence, are also summarized.

Predicting Perceived Profile Attractiveness From Cephalometric Measurements Using Machine Learning.

BackgroundFacial attractiveness is shaped by multiple visual cues, yet the influence of image resolution on attractiveness judgments remains underexplored. Advances in display and imaging technology now allow for image presentation at resolutions approaching the limits of human spatial vision, enabling investigations under higher-fidelity spatial sampling conditions that more closely approximate retina-like detail at typical viewing distances.ObjectivesThis study aimed to determine whether facial image resolution, specifically matched to the spatial resolving power of the human visual system, affects perceived facial attractiveness.MethodsHigh-resolution facial images of 180 Japanese female models were captured using an 8K imaging system (7680 × 4320 pixels; 283.2 ppi). Low-resolution versions (35.3 ppi) were created by downsampling the originals using pixelation. Both high- and low-resolution images were presented on an 8K display in a within-subjects design. Participants rated the attractiveness of each face using a standardized 6-point scale.ResultsFacial images presented at higher resolution received slightly higher attractiveness ratings than their low-resolution counterparts, as confirmed by linear mixed-effects models accounting for crossed observer and identity effects. The effect was especially pronounced for faces with higher baseline attractiveness. Age-related declines in attractiveness ratings were observed in both conditions.ConclusionsUltra-high image resolution yields a small but reliable increase in perceived facial attractiveness, particularly for faces with higher baseline attractiveness. These findings suggest that increased spatial detail may amplify attractiveness-related cues that are otherwise diminished in conventional-resolution displays.

Individuals show robust differences in where they look on a face. Some fixate closer to the eyes while others fixate closer to the mouth. While humans infer mental states and traits from specific facial regions and their expressions, such idiosyncratic gaze patterns may shape how individual features contribute to the overall impression of a face. We hypothesized that an individual’s habitual fixation behavior biases their impression of a face to be aligned more closely with the region they most often foveate. To test this idea, we analyzed fixation patterns on faces in a scene viewing task and independent perceptual judgments regarding valence, arousal, trustworthiness, dominance, and attractiveness for whole faces and face parts. A linear mixed-effects model confirmed that habitual fixation proximity to eyes, nose, and mouth explained individual differences in how well ratings for whole faces were aligned with those for the corresponding isolated feature. Building on this finding, we ran a second experiment to test whether individual differences in face fixations can predict diverging impressions of trustworthiness in appropriately manipulated images. Observers reported which of two consecutively presented versions of a subtly manipulated face they perceived to be more trustworthy. Consistent with our hypothesis, individuals who tend to fixate lower down or higher up were weakly biased to prefer versions of the face with a more trustworthy bottom or top, respectively. Together, our findings indicate that individual differences in gaze can systematically bias our sometimes-diverging impression of a face.

Writers from Darwin to Dawkins have noted that, in humans, women are considered the 'beautiful sex', whereas in most species, it is males who display more elaborate, visually striking traits. This reversal of typical sex roles has long been debated in the literature but never empirically verified. Here, we present a large-scale cross-cultural meta-analysis of same- and opposite-sex ratings of facial attractiveness. Our findings provide robust evidence for a gender attractiveness gap (GAP), with female faces rated more attractive than male faces across rater sexes, cultures, races and age groups. Surprisingly, the GAP is more pronounced among female raters, who rate other women substantially higher than male faces, while male faces receive similarly low ratings from both sexes; the GAP is absent in self-ratings. Morphometric analyses further show that sexual shape dimorphism accounts for a substantial portion of the GAP. Additionally, we observe a tendency for greater stringency among male raters. This study draws on the largest worldwide collection of facial-attractiveness data assembled to date, which we make openly available to facilitate future research. Together, these results demonstrate that facial-attractiveness judgements extend well beyond heterosexual mate choice and reflect the joint influence of facial structure, rater characteristics and sociocultural context.

Facial attractiveness influences social and professional perceptions, including competence and employability. With the increasing use of artificial intelligence (AI) to generate photorealistic faces, it is important to understand how these images compare to real orthodontic treatment outcomes. To compare perceptions of real versus AI-generated orthodontic treatment results in terms of attractiveness, employability, and distinguishability. A cross-sectional online survey included 288 Brazilian adults. Dentists (n = 76), dental students (n = 63), and laypeople (n = 149). Each evaluated three sets of images (pre-treatment, post-treatment, and AI-generated post-treatment) for three patients. Participants rated facial attractiveness (VAS 0-100), assessed employability, and identified whether the image was AI-generated. AI-generated images were rated significantly more attractive than real post-treatment ones (mean VAS: AI = 68.8; Real = 54.4; p < 0.001). Dentists, students, and laypeople all rated AI images higher. Employability was also greater for AI images (50.4%) than real ones (39.1%) (p = 0.007). Misclassification was common, with dental students achieving the highest accuracy (66.8%). Participants showed limited ability to accurately distinguish between real and AI-generated images. AI-generated images were perceived as more attractive and had a greater positive impact on employability judgements compared to real post-treatment images.

Facial attractiveness significantly influences social and personal outcomes, and therefore, interventions in orthodontics and maxillofacial surgery often aim at enhancing facial appearance. This study investigated the relationship between facial profile attractiveness and overall (frontal and profile) facial attractiveness to determine whether assessments relying solely on profile views sufficiently capture comprehensive facial evaluation. The sample consisted of 36 Class II Division 1 individuals with convex profiles, balanced in sex distribution. Ratings were provided by orthodontists, surgeons, patients, and laypersons. Facial attractiveness was evaluated using a validated visual analogue scale, comparing profile-only images with images showing the frontal and profile facial views simultaneously. A moderate to strong positive correlation between profile and overall facial attractiveness was demonstrated across all rater groups (Pearson's r = 0.62-0.84). Surgeons tended to rate profiles less favourably than the overall face, while laypeople rated profiles higher. Median absolute differences between profile and overall attractiveness ratings reached 8.3/100, with deviations occasionally reaching clinically significant levels in individual cases. The variation in ratings suggests that factors beyond profile attractiveness influence overall facial attractiveness. Scatter plot analyses revealed stronger correlations among specialists compared to non-specialists. These findings highlight the limitations of relying solely on profile assessments for treatment planning and outcome evaluation in patients with convex profiles. Comprehensive evaluation of multiple facial aspects, ideally including 3D analysis, is recommended to better address patients' aesthetic concerns and social functionality.

Faces are powerful sources of social information, and the eye region plays a central role in shaping first impressions. While prior studies have suggested that scleral exposure may influence social judgments, findings remain inconsistent, and experimental approaches, nonexistent. The present study employed a controlled experimental design to explore how scleral exposure might influence judgments of trustworthiness, attractiveness, sociability, and perceived social rank in peer-related facial perception. A total of 162 participants rated 50 neutral faces twice, each digitally manipulated to display small and large scleral exposure. Results showed a consistent “scleral exposure effect”: across all measured social judgments, faces with larger scleral exposure were rated more favorably than the same faces with smaller scleral exposure. No interactions emerged between scleral exposure and sex of the raters or sex of the presented faces, indicating that these scleral exposure effects may reflect general sex-independent mechanisms. These findings provide the first experimental evidence that scleral exposure shapes multiple dimensions of social judgment, favoring greater exposure.

Facial attractiveness significantly influences social perception. Previous studies have identified the eyes and mouth as primary focal points of attention, but the role of nasal aesthetics in overall facial attractiveness remains understudied. This study examines the relationship between nose shape, perceived attractiveness, and visual attention using eye-tracking technology. Thirty-four models (mean age, 38 years) and 31 observers (mean age, 33 years) participated. Models underwent standardized 2-dimensional/3-dimensional imaging, and 17 anthropometric facial measurements were recorded. Observers viewed these images on an eye-tracker, recording fixation durations and revisit counts for the eyes, nose, and mouth. Observers also rated facial and nasal attractiveness using a 10-point visual analog scale. Gaze metrics were analyzed in relation to attractiveness ratings and anthropometric measurements. Models with noses perceived as unattractive received significantly more visual attention on the nose and mouth (total fixation duration: nose, 0.81 ± 0.14 seconds versus 0.72 ± 0.12 seconds [ P = 0.03]; mouth, 0.65 ± 0.13 seconds versus 0.54 ± 0.07 seconds [ P = 0.03]). Models with noses perceived as attractive received more visual attention on the eyes (total fixation duration: 1.92 ± 0.15 seconds versus 1.69 ± 0.27 seconds [ P = 0.02]). Nasal tip deviation ( P = 0.01) and longer upper lips ( P = 0.05) correlated with lower attractiveness ratings; traditional neoclassical canons and nasal width had limited impact ( P > 0.05). Noses perceived as attractive enhance facial harmony by reducing visual attention on themselves, allowing the gaze to focus on other dominant facial features, like the eyes. These findings highlight the importance of holistic facial assessments over isolated nasal evaluations during rhinoplasty consults. Future research should incorporate dynamic facial stimuli and diverse observer populations to further refine understanding of nasal aesthetic perceptions.

We examine whether Chief Financial Officers’ (CFOs) facial attractiveness influences audit pricing in a setting where independence, objectivity, and professional skepticism are expected to dominate decision-making. Using a machine-learning-based measure of facial attractiveness validated against human ratings, we analyze CFOs of U.S. publicly listed firms from 2006 to 2016 and find that auditors charge significantly lower audit fees to firms with more facially attractive CFOs. Cross-sectional analyses suggest that facial attractiveness facilitates closer engagement and richer exchange of soft information, especially during periods of high uncertainty, and that attractiveness exerts greater influence when relationship-specific information is limited, which leads auditors to lower their assessed audit risk and charge lower audit fees. Additional tests show that CFO attractiveness is unrelated to financial reporting quality, the likelihood of going concern opinions, or financial restatements, suggesting that facial attractiveness is not a proxy for firm fundamentals or CFO competence. Overall, our study introduces a novel channel – appearance-driven dynamics in auditor–client interactions – which extends prior research on behavioural influences in audit pricing.

Gender identity and mate preferences: transgender individuals value emotional traits over facial attractiveness

Machine learning-powered decoding of facial complexity: a diamond-and-triangle geometry for frontal facial analysis.

Perception of facial attractiveness is influenced by cultural and ethnic factors. Understanding how different populations perceive facial modifications is important for guiding aesthetic treatments. To compare the perceptions of Caucasian and Chinese observers regarding facial modifications that simulate common aesthetic procedures and to identify potential differences or similarities between these populations. In this cross-sectional survey-based investigation, 263 participants (112 Chinese, 151 Polish Caucasian) evaluated experimentally modified images of male and female faces from their own ethnic group. The images were modified to simulate increased lip and cheek volume and lateral elevation of the eyebrows and canthal angle, either alone or in combination. Participants rated each image on attractiveness, unattractiveness, femininity, and masculinity using a 5-point Likert scale. Statistical comparisons were made between ethnic groups and between modified and unmodified images. Both ethnic groups rated faces with multiple modifications as less attractive and more unattractive compared to unmodified faces. Periorbital modifications were rated as least attractive and most unattractive in Caucasian observers, while cheek modifications were rated as least attractive and most unattractive by Chinese participants, particularly women. Increased lip volume decreased attractiveness in both groups but did not significantly alter ratings of masculinity or femininity. Caucasian and Chinese observers share similar (negative) perceptions toward excessive facial modifications but differ in the specific features they evaluate least attractive. These results indicate that a similar aesthetic perception emerges particularly when multiple facial features are altered.

Background: While symmetry and proportionality are recurring perceptual markers of facial attractiveness, aesthetic evaluation is also influenced by cultural norms, social context, and temporal variation. This study therefore examined the proportional and symmetrical relationships of facial features among the Ijaw and Isoko people using photogrammetric analysis. Material and Methods: This comparative study included 400 participants (200 Ijaw and 200 Isoko), aged 15–35 years. Facial measurements were obtained from anterior and lateral photographs of students from both ethnic groups. The photographs were printed on A4 paper and measured at life size using a meter rule. Facial measurements and proportional relationships were assessed using Cunningham’s anthropometric landmarks and reference proportions. Results: Most facial parameters showed no significant ethnic differences among males (p &gt; 0.05). However, width of face at eye level (16.26 ± 0.99 vs 15.09 ± 1.44; p &lt; 0.001), chin length (3.58 ± 0.42 vs 3.88 ± 0.42; p &lt; 0.001), width of face at mouth level (14.18 ± 1.21 vs 13.47 ± 1.30; p &lt; 0.001), LNEB (7.79 ± 0.55 vs 7.49 ± 0.80; p = 0.005), and upper and lower lip positions relative to the esthetic plane (p &lt; 0.01) differed significantly between Ijaw and Isoko males. In contrast, females exhibited more pronounced inter-ethnic variation, with significant differences in width of face at eye level (16.18 ± 1.08 vs 15.30 ± 1.27; p &lt; 0.001), chin length (3.66 ± 0.35 vs 3.85 ± 0.43; p &lt; 0.001), eye width (3.10 ± 0.38 vs 3.32 ± 0.40; p &lt; 0.001), mouth width (6.36 ± 0.69 vs 6.85 ± 0.78; p &lt; 0.001), several facial linear measurements (VLNEB, LNEB, rVLEM, and lVLEM; p &lt; 0.001), nasolabial angle (85.27 ± 8.36 vs 80.17 ± 9.77; p &lt; 0.001), and lip positions (p ≤ 0.005), whereas parameters such as total facial height remained comparable (p &gt; 0.05). Comparison with Cunningham’s proportions revealed notable deviations in WFEL–WE (approximately 21–23% vs the ideal 30%) and NL–EL ratios (approximately 119–123%), whereas most other proportions closely approximated the classical standards, indicating measurable ethnic- and sex-based variations in facial morphology. Conclusion: This study provides baseline comparative anthropometric data for Ijaw and Isoko participants. Several facial proportions in this sample approximated the selected reference ratios; however, these findings should be interpreted as population-specific morphometric observations rather than evidence of a universal standard of beauty.

ABSTRACT Virtual faces are increasingly used as social partners in digital environments, yet it remains unclear whether the evaluative dimensions of ‘beauty’ and ‘attractiveness’ shape their perception in distinct ways. This eye tracking study examined how evaluation dimension (beauty vs. attractiveness) and viewing condition (3,000 ms vs. free viewing) influence ratings and gaze allocation for standardised Chinese virtual faces. Twenty four students rated 63 static faces for either beauty or attractiveness under both viewing conditions while their eye movements were recorded. Behaviourally, beauty and attractiveness judgments were almost indistinguishable, and mixed effects models showed no reliable effects of evaluation dimension. In contrast, gaze data revealed dimension dependent viewing strategies. Beauty judgments emphasised the core configural region, whereas attractiveness judgments shifted relatively more dwell time toward the mouth, indicating differences in information sampling rather than explicit evaluation. In free viewing, total face dwell time showed an inverted U shaped relation to ratings, cautioning against treating viewing duration as a proxy for preference. These findings indicate that, for standardised virtual faces, beauty and attractiveness converge at the level of explicit judgments but diverge in information sampling strategies, and indicate interpreting viewing time as a simple proxy for preference in virtual character research.

In many species, chemosensory cues convey important information about reproductive status, but their role in shaping social interactions among women is less understood. Here, we combined functional neuroimaging with behavioral measures to test how chemosignals from women at different reproductive stages [menstruation, ovulation (OV), and early pregnancy (PRG)] affect social perception in female recipients across their own menstrual cycle. Chemosignal donors were screened and tracked for cycle phase (n = 59) and pregnancy status (n = 36). Female functional MRI participants (n = 33) completed a single-blind within-subject crossover design with two sessions, one during menstruation and one during ovulation. The participants rated attractiveness, desired proximity, and pregnancy status of standardized female faces while being unknowingly exposed to the axillary chemosignals. Neuroimaging analyses showed OV chemosignals to elicit greater activation across frontal, parietal, temporal, and subcortical regions, including the temporoparietal junction, insula, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia. PRG chemosignals were associated with more circumscribed responses, particularly in the prefrontal and cingulate areas. These effects were modulated by the recipient's own cycle phase, with broader networks being engaged during ovulation than menstruation. Behaviorally, the participants maintained a greater distance from faces paired with PRG but approached them more closely during their own ovulation. Attractiveness ratings and pregnancy categorizations were unaffected by chemosensory condition or cycle phase. Together, these findings demonstrate that subtle chemosensory signals shape female social cognition in a cycle-dependent manner, highlighting an adaptive mechanism by which chemosensory cues guide competition, vigilance, and affiliation without necessarily altering explicit judgments.

This study investigated how observers compute the average attractiveness of groups of faces with different identities, presented via rapid serial visual presentation. In Experiment 1, participants rated the average attractiveness of group faces, revealing a recency effect where the last face had the greatest influence. In Experiments 2 and 3, participants compared the average attractiveness of groups (with members presented in ascending, random, or descending attractiveness order) against either the arithmetic-average face (AAF; where each member contributes equally) or the weighted-average face (WAF; using recency-based weights from Experiment 1; tested only in Experiment 3). Presentation order influenced judgments for AAFs but not for WAFs; furthermore, this confirms that rapid serial visual presentation-based group-attractiveness perception relies on weighted processing incorporating the recency effect. In Experiment 4, participants rated the average attractiveness of group faces, the attractiveness of group member faces, and AAF/WAFs, and completed a memory task. The results showed that participants estimate group-average attractiveness by combining individual members' attractiveness through a weighted average, rather than by matching it to the attractiveness of the WAF itself. The recency effect observed in the memory task suggests that the recency effect in ensemble perception of facial attractiveness may reflect broader principles of memory encoding that are based on postperceptual processing. These findings offer novel perspectives on the mechanisms of group-attractiveness perception and have potential implications for group impression formation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

The perioral region is frequently targeted surgically, with its vulnerability to nonmelanoma skin cancers, congenital deformities, and its role in facial attractiveness. This highlights the need for comprehensive evaluation tools for the region. Functional outcome evaluation can ensure the preservation of vital abilities necessary for daily independence. We reviewed and validated postsurgical assessment tools used in oncologic, reconstructive, and cosmetic procedures involving the perioral region, focusing on perioral functional outcomes covered. A systematic review across PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus identified validated surgical assessment tools for perioral surgery and the perioral functional outcomes they cover. Fifty-five validated tools for cosmetic, 17 for oncologic, and 29 for reconstructive surgeries were identified. All surgery types showed a relatively narrow scope in assessing perioral functional outcomes, including speech, eating, and facial expressions. In total, 10/17 oncologic, 12/29 reconstructive, and 2/55 cosmetic tools assessed functional outcomes. A large proportion of cosmetic tools exclusively focused on aesthetic factors, while tools for other surgery types more frequently covered functional, aesthetic, and quality of life outcomes. Functional outcome assessment seems less emphasized across all perioral surgery types, particularly within cosmetic procedures. Refining tools for comprehensive functional evaluation can enhance patient care.

Objective: To evaluate the effect of facial attractiveness on treatment recommendations for non-melanoma skin cancer of the head and neck. Methods: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of Canadian surgeons and radiation oncologists to assess the effect of facial attractiveness on treatment choices for non-melanoma head and neck skin cancers. Participants rated preference of surgery or radiotherapy (RT) for digitally altered images with lesions at 5 facial subsites. The primary outcome was the association between attractiveness and treatment choice; the secondary outcome was the influence of lesion location. Associations between attractiveness and treatment choice were analyzed with Spearman’s correlation, and site-specific differences were descriptively evaluated. Results: One hundred and eight respondents (17.8% response rate) completed the survey. Surgery was favored across all anatomical subsites. Facial attractiveness was not significantly associated with treatment recommendations at any subsite. At the nasal tip, there was a trend toward recommending surgery for more attractive patients (ρ = 0.13, P = .08). Independent of attractiveness, lesion location appeared to influence treatment recommendations, with the nasal tip more often considered for RT than other subsites. Conclusions: Facial attractiveness did not influence treatment recommendations for non-melanoma head and neck skin cancers. Surgery was preferred across anatomic subsites, but respondents often considered for RT for treating nasal tip non-melanoma skin cancers.

Facial attractiveness is often regarded as subjective, yet perceptions are strongly influenced by cultural, social, and biological factors. This study aimed to investigate whether and to what extent three-dimensional facial shape is associated with attractiveness ratings assigned by external evaluators, and whether these associations differ between males and females. A total of 601 young adults (393 females; 208 males), aged 21-35 years, were assessed using three-dimensional facial photography. Facial shape was quantified using 29 anatomical curves and 1,021 landmarks analyzed through geometric morphometric methods. Six external examiners (three males, three females), matched in age to the study population, independently rated attractiveness using Visual Analogue Scales (VAS). Multivariate regression models were applied to examine associations between facial shape and attractiveness scores. Analyses were conducted separately for males and females to account for biological differences in facial morphology. Facial shape was significantly associated with attractiveness ratings in females (η² = 0.075; P < 0.001). Higher attractiveness scores were linked to well-balanced vertical facial proportions and a more angular facial appearance, with sharper contours, reduced facial fullness, and mild profile convexity. A fuller and more projected upper lip was also characteristic of higher-rated faces. In males, effect size was comparable (η² = 0.070), but the association did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.106). Attractive male faces tended to exhibit an angular and well-defined facial structure, decreased lateral fullness, slightly increased lower facial height, central facial projection, and a straight profile. Facial shape is associated with externally perceived facial attractiveness, with statistically significant effects observed in females. The findings align with previous research on self-perceived attractiveness and underscore the influence of facial morphology on societal perceptions of attractiveness.