Extreme Low Tides Research Articles

Transcriptome profiling reveals the strategy of thermal tolerance enhancement caused by heat-hardening in Mytilus coruscus

The thick-shell mussel Mytilus coruscus serves as a common sessile intertidal species and holds economic significance as an aquatic organism. M. coruscus often endure higher temperatures than their ideal range during consecutive low tides in the spring. This exposure to elevated temperatures provides them with a thermal tolerance boost, enabling them to adapt to high-temperature events caused by extreme low tides and adverse weather conditions. This phenomenon is referred to as heat-hardening. Some related studies showed the phenomenon of heat-hardening in sessile intertidal species but not reported at the mechanism level based on transcriptome so far. In this study, physiological experiments, gene family identification and transcriptome sequencing were performed to confirm the thermotolerance enhancement based on heat-hardening and explore the mechanism in M. coruscus. A total of 2935 DEGs were identified and the results of the KEGG enrichment showed that seven heat-hardening relative pathways were enriched, including Toll-like receptor signal pathway, Arachidonic acid metabolism, and others. Then, 24 HSP70 members and 36 CYP2 members, were identified, and the up-regulated members are correlated with increasing thermotolerance. Finally, we concluded that the heat-hardening M. coruscus have a better thermotolerance because of the capability of maintaining the integrity and the phenomenon of vasodilation of the gill under thermal stress. Further, the physiological experiments yielded the same conclusions. Overall, this study confirms the thermotolerance enhancement caused by heat-hardening and reveals the survival strategy in M. coruscus. In addition, the conclusion provides a new reference for studying the intertidal species' heat resistance mechanisms to combat extreme heat events and the strategies for dealing with extreme weather in aquaculture under the global warming trend.

Response of Upstream Behavior and Hydrodynamic Factors of Anguilla Japonica in a Combined Bulkhead Fishway under Tidal Conditions

Frequent changes in the tide levels in estuaries cause constant changes in the hydraulics of fish passage systems, with important effects on successful fish passage and swimming behavior. In most cases, Japanese eels often have low passage rates in engineered fishways because of their special habits. In this study, we established a 1:4 scaled-down weir-hole combination bulkhead fishway, studied the effects of different tidal differences and water depths on the passage rates and swimming behavior of yellow-phase Japanese eels, and analyzed the response of the Japanese eels to the hydraulic factors by superimposing their swimming trajectories and the flow field simulation results. We found that the passage rate of the eels decreased from 68.18% to 50.00% and 45.45% under extreme high tide differences and extreme low tide differences, respectively. The eels tended to use the low-velocity area to climb up the wall, and when crossing the mainstream, the yellow-phase Japanese eels preferred the area with a flow velocity of 0.1~0.36 m/s and a turbulent kinetic energy range of 0.001~0.007 m2/s2. Their upstream swimming speed was maintained at a range of 0.1~0.3 m/s.

Negative sea level anomalies with extreme low tides in the South-West Indian Ocean shape Reunion Island’s fringing coral reef flats

Among induced mass-mortality events on coral reef, extreme low tides may ultimately lead to considerable reef community deaths on intertidal reef flats due to unusually long and significant aerial exposure. Here, we report an extensive coral mortality event induced by a negative sea level anomaly (nSLA) that occurred across Reunion Island during the austral winter season between June and October 2015 preceding the 2015–2016 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event. The nSLA was strong and long in duration with a rapid drop of 35 cm in the mean sea level over a one-month period. Surveys conducted over seven reef flat sites before and after the nSLA revealed that mean coral cover drastically decreased from 54.5 ± 12.7% in early 2015, to 27.4 ± 6.9% in November 2015, which is an equivalent cover loss of 50% following the 2015 nSLA event. The shallowest sites showed a greater decrease in coral cover while the deepest parts of the reef flat remained unaffected. We found a significant correlation between the bathymetry and the relative coral cover variation. Using this relationship between depth and coral cover changes, high-resolution hyperspectral imagery and Lidar bathymetric airborne data, we mapped the impacts of this event at the scale of the whole reef. Overall the modeled loss reached 13.0 ha, which represents a decrease of 45.5% of all live coral cover in this area during the 2015 nSLA event. The impact of a nSLA on emersion times is much greater than the regular variation in tide amplitude between neap and spring tides, reaching new bathymetric ranges that are usually stable in terms of water submersion. Temporal variation of coral cover on Reunion Island reef flat revealed regular decreases to be compared with mean low-water-level events among other sea and climatic related disturbances and stressors.

Subaerial exposure of coral reefs during spring low tides in the eastern Pacific

Extreme low tides that expose corals to air are damaging for coral reefs. The best developed coral reef of the continental Colombian Pacific was exposed at spring tide during consecutive days in 2019. Consumer-grade drone imagery revealed the extent of the area affected. These corals have high conservation and research value.

Nursery Performance of Sandfish Holothuria scabra Juveniles in Tidal Earthen Pond Using Different Types of Cage

Sandfish Holothuria scabra is a promising aquaculture commodity. Techniques for producing this species have been developed rapidly in recent decades to address the issues of increasing market demand and overexploitation of wild populations. Providing sandfish seed with suitable size for stocking (20-50 g) is one of the main issues in mass production of sandfish. Developing reliable nursery techniques could solve this problem. This study aimed to investigate the survival and growth performance of sandfish juveniles in two types of nursery cage: (i) floating net cages and (ii) fixed net cages. The experiments were conducted in a tidal earthen seawater pond in Sekotong, West Lombok for 14 weeks between August 5 and November 13, 2015. Each type of experimental cage had 3 replicates, stocked with 15 juveniles (mean initial weight 4.22 g) per cage. Feed was provided naturally from the substrate in the pond and in seawater, which was exchanged daily following the natural tidal cycle. Juveniles showed rapid growth and high survival rate for both floating and fixed net cages during the first six weeks of culture with no significant difference (P<0.05). Conversely, at the end of the experiment, the growth and survival of juveniles in the fixed net cage were lower because of the extreme low tide and the dry season, which began after week 6. During the low tide, floating net cages stayed submerged in the water while some parts of the fixed cages were exposed, killing the juveniles attached to the net. Our findings suggest that both cages were suitable for use in sandfish juvenile nurseries, although it is better to use the floating net cage in tidal ponds.

Spatial Abundance and Colour Morphotype Densities of the Rock-Boring Sea Urchin (Echinometra lucunter) at Two Different Habitats

The rock-boring sea urchin Echinometra lucunter is a common echinoderm found throughout the intertidal zone along the northeastern coast of, Toco, Trinidad. Sea urchin abundance, size distribution, and colour morphotypes at two sites: Pequelle Bay (SB) and Grande L’Anse (GA) were quantified using 1 m2 quadrats, accessible during extreme low tides, and in two environments, notably low and high wave action. Percent coverage of cnidarian and macroalgae were estimated in each quadrat. Sea urchin densities were 9.9–17.8 urchins/m2 in high wave action, and 25.2–60.7 urchins/m2 in low wave action environments. Size (measured as maximum sea urchin diameter) are highest between 21 and 50 mm for both black and red colour morphotypes. Black colour morphs were significantly larger than red morphs (ANOVA, F2, 175 = 5.55, p < 0.05). Sea urchins at low energy environments were significantly larger than those found in high energy environments for all years (p < 0.05). Mean hard coral, soft coral, and macroalgae cover did not show any relationship with habitat type or urchin densities. Although sea urchin abundance and distribution were variable, larger urchins were more likely to be found in low wave action environments, and smaller urchins were mostly found in the open, and exposed to high wave action.

Synalpheus amintae sp. nov., a new species of sponge-dwelling snapping shrimp(Crustacea: Decapoda: Alpheidae) from Parque Nacional Natural Isla Gorgona, Pacific Coast of Colombia.

A new species of sponge-dwelling snapping shrimp, Synalpheus amintae sp. nov. from the Parque Nacional Natural Isla Gorgona, Pacific coast of Colombia, is described. This new species pertains to the denominated Synalpheus "Gambarelloides" species group sensu Coutière (1909)-previously known as "Laevimanus" group. It was collected in the southern part of the Island, during episodes of extreme low tides, known locally as "puja". Synalpheus amintae sp. nov. is closely related to the only two other known species of the S. "Gambarelloides" species group from the eastern Pacific: Synalpheus occidentalis Coutière, 1909, from Gulf of San José, Lower California, and Synalpheus mulegensis Ríos, 1992, from Bahía Concepción, Gulf of California, and can be differentiated from them by the poorly developed distal portion of pollex of the major cheliped, the armature of the distal segment of third maxilliped, and the number of acute teeth of exopodal uropod. A discriminative analysis dealing with other three species of Synalpheus from the western Atlantic, with distinctive pollex of major chela reduced, is presented. A dichotomous key was elaborated to identify the species of Synalpheus "Gambarelloides" species group from the eastern Pacific. The number of valid species described of Synalpheus from the eastern Pacific is increased to 23.

Radio tracking detects behavioral thermoregulation at a snail's pace

The dynamic ebb and flood of tides makes the marine intertidal zone a habitat with temperatures that fluctuate rapidly in both space and time. This is problematic for slow intertidal organisms that cannot move at the speed of tidal fluctuations. The timing of low tides determines which days organisms may experience extreme body temperatures, controlling microclimate to a greater degree than weather patterns. When low tides occur midday, temperatures can exceed critical thermal maxima for many species. Although high shore areas experience the greatest environmental extremes, they often harbor untapped food resources. The periodicity of low tide timing creates a predictable cycle that marine animals can use to obtain food in risky areas while minimizing exposure to thermal extremes. Here, we use a two-part approach to assess whether the snail, Nucella ostrina, uses the predictability of the tidal cycle to obtain food in risky areas while minimizing exposure to thermal extremes. Radio tracking detected the presence/absence of snails in high shore feeding areas continuously for 14weeks and physical thermal models approximated snail body temperature in those high shore areas. Snails were absent when extreme low tides occurred at times of high solar irradiance (midday). Comparing the subset of physical model body temperatures foraging snails experienced to all available body temperatures in the high shore environment showed snails in foraging areas disproportionately at 9–12°C and absent at body temperatures >31°C, suggesting that N. ostrina is not present when and where thermal risk is greatest. These patterns demonstrate that censusing only at low tide yields an adequate picture of foraging behavior of this species in its natural habitat, and that migratory foraging behavior effectively moderates snail experience of environmental temperature in nature and may buffer this species from aerial warming.

Temporal dynamics of coral and algal cover and their potential drivers on a coral reef of Gorgona Island, Colombia (Eastern Tropical Pacific)

Los arrecifes coralinos son ecosistemas altamente dinámicos, a menudo afectados por diversas perturbaciones naturales. Sin embargo, descensos dramáticos en la cobertura coralina durante décadas recientes llevan a preguntar si tales descensos han sido causados por crecientes impactos antropogénicos. Con este fin, la dinámica de la cobertura de coral y algas se estudió a partir de datos recolectados entre 1998-2014 de 20 transectos fijos de 10 m a dos profundidades en dos sitios de La Azufrada, un arrecife coralino libre de impactos humanos locales, situado en Isla Gorgona, Colombia. La cobertura coralina disminuyó de 66,9 % en 1998 a 39,4 % en 2008, pero luego aumentó a 50,7 % en 2014. La cobertura de algas carnosas y de césped fue baja entre 1998-2004, aumentó a 49,5 % en 2007 y luego disminuyó a &lt; 33,0 %. Las algas coralinas incrustantes fueron las más escasas hasta 2009, cuando aumentaron al disminuir las algas carnosas y de césped. La variación temporal fue diferente entre profundidades con las áreas someras exhibiendo los mayores descensos en la cobertura coralina hasta 2008, pero una recuperación significativa desde entonces. En contraste, la cobertura coralina en áreas profundas disminuyó sólo ligeramente. La exposición subaérea prolongada de los corales durante mareas bajas extremas parece impulsar un ciclo de perturbación y recuperación de los corales. El crecimiento de los corales hace que el arrecife sea más propenso a la exposición subaérea, después de lo cual los corales se blanquean, mueren y son colonizados por algas filamentosas y carnosas. Los erizos de mar y los peces herbívoros aumentan su abundancia en respuesta al aumento de la cobertura de algas y controlan el crecimiento de algas, dejando el sustrato cubierto por algas coralinas incrustantes que lo adecúan para el asentamiento de larvas de coral producidas sexualmente. La fragmentación por agentes físicos y biológicos (como los coralívoros) incrementa el reclutamiento de coral y el arrecife entra en una fase de recuperación coralina. Aunque este arrecife es resiliente a la exposición subaérea porque está protegido de perturbaciones antropogénicas, las crecientes amenazas del cambio climático global pueden comprometer su futura resiliencia. © 2017. Acad. Colomb. Cienc. Ex. Fis. Nat.

Effect of short-term subaerial exposure on the cauliflower coral, Pocillopora damicornis, during a simulated extreme low-tide event

There is increased interest in understanding how stress reduces coral resistance to disturbances and how acclimatization increases the ability of corals to resist future stress. Most extreme low tides at Gorgona Island, which expose reef flats to air, do not appear to negatively affect corals because corals usually do not undergo lethal bleaching during such events. However, coral physiology and fitness may be impacted by this phenomenon. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether corals exposed to air have modified biological functions to resist bleaching. To test this, an extreme low-tide event was simulated in the field. Colonies of Pocillopora damicornis were exposed to air for 15 or 40 min over the course of one, two, or three consecutive days. This procedure was repeated for one to three months. Colonies of P. damicornis exposed to air had reduced fecundity, decreased zooxanthellae density, and changed color from darker to lighter. However, the growth rate of exposed corals was similar to that of non-exposed colonies. We conclude that short periods of subaerial exposure during extreme low tides are not lethal to P. damicornis, but negatively affect sexual reproduction, which might have deleterious effects at the population level. The periodic occurrence of extreme low tides in the tropical eastern Pacific may be one factor responsible for the high rate of asexual reproduction (e.g., fragmentation) in pocilloporid corals of this region.

First report of permineralised plants in the Stephanian of Arnao (Asturias, northwestern Spain)

The first record of an anatomically preserved flora from Stephanian outcrops at Arnao beach (Asturias, Spain) is presented. The stratigraphic section is part of a geological heritage site that preserves exceptional Devonian reef deposits. The Carboniferous succession contains coal seams worked by one of the earliest mines in Spain and its plant-fossil assemblages were reported in the 19th century but scarcely revised later. The new assemblages recovered in the beach, during extreme low tides, represent the first record of permineralised trunks in northwestern Spain. Large cordaitalean specimens are referred to a new species of Cordaixylon characterised by non-septate pith, araucarian radial pitting of the tracheids and cross-fields with phyllocladoid pits. Part of the root mantle of Psaronius is preserved in water-worn pebbles, indicating the presence of tree ferns in the palaeoflora. The associated compression/impression assemblage includes lycophytes, sphenophytes, pteridosperms and pteridophytes. A comparison of the assemblage confirms its importance for reconstructing the Late Pennsylvanian floral succession in the region.

The unnatural history of Kāne'ohe Bay: coral reef resilience in the face of centuries of anthropogenic impacts.

Kāneʻohe Bay, which is located on the on the NE coast of Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, represents one of the most intensively studied estuarine coral reef ecosystems in the world. Despite a long history of anthropogenic disturbance, from early settlement to post European contact, the coral reef ecosystem of Kāneʻohe Bay appears to be in better condition in comparison to other reefs around the world. The island of Moku o Loʻe (Coconut Island) in the southern region of the bay became home to the Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology in 1947, where researchers have since documented the various aspects of the unique physical, chemical, and biological features of this coral reef ecosystem. The first human contact by voyaging Polynesians occurred at least 700 years ago. By A.D. 1250 Polynesians voyagers had settled inhabitable islands in the region which led to development of an intensive agricultural, fish pond and ocean resource system that supported a large human population. Anthropogenic disturbance initially involved clearing of land for agriculture, intentional or accidental introduction of alien species, modification of streams to supply water for taro culture, and construction of massive shoreline fish pond enclosures and extensive terraces in the valleys that were used for taro culture. The arrival by the first Europeans in 1778 led to further introductions of plants and animals that radically changed the landscape. Subsequent development of a plantation agricultural system led to increased human immigration, population growth and an end to traditional land and water management practices. The reefs were devastated by extensive dredge and fill operations as well as rapid growth of human population, which led to extensive urbanization of the watershed. By the 1960’s the bay was severely impacted by increased sewage discharge along with increased sedimentation due to improper grading practices and stream channelization, resulting in extensive loss of coral cover. The reefs of Kāneʻohe Bay developed under estuarine conditions and thus have been subjected to multiple natural stresses. These include storm floods, a more extreme temperature range than more oceanic reefs, high rates of sedimentation, and exposure at extreme low tides. Deposition and degradation of organic materials carried into the bay from the watershed results in low pH conditions such that according to some ocean acidification projections the rich coral reefs in the bay should not exist. Increased global temperature due to anthropogenic fossil fuel emmisions is now impacting these reefs with the first “bleaching event” in 1996 and a second more severe event in 2014. The reefs of Kāneʻohe Bay have developed and persist under rather severe natural and anthropogenic perturbations. To date, these reefs have proved to be very resilient once the stressor has been removed. A major question remains to be answered concerning the limits of Kāneʻohe Bay reef resilience in the face of global climate change.

An enigmatic, diminutive theropod footprint in the shallow marine Pliensbachian Hasle Formation, Bornholm, Denmark

A well-preserved three-toed footprint, measuring 34 mm in length from a very small predatory dinosaur with an estimated hip height of 153 mm and a total body length around 50 cm including tail, is reported from the type section of the marine Lower Jurassic (Pliensbachian), Hasle Formation on the Danish island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea. The morphology of the footprint is similar to the ichnogenus Stenonyx Lull 1904 from the contemporaneous Pliensbachian Szydlowek site in Poland. Apart from the Polish material, footprints from diminutive dinosaurs are rare and reported from few other localities around the world. The occurrence of a diminutive dinosaur footprint in a shallow marine sandstone is enigmatic. The well-defined morphology of the footprint, together with the very small size of the trackmaker, excludes the possibility that the track was emplaced by a swimming or wading animal. At the type locality where the footprint was found the formation consists of ferruginous coarse siltstone and very fine-grained sandstone, showing hummocky and swaley cross-stratification and rare large-scale trough cross-bedding and planar lamination. Deposition took place mainly in the upper shoreface in a storm-dominated environment 1 km west of the N−S-oriented faulted coastline. The formation becomes thinner and finer grained with heterolithic intercalations towards the south, indicating coast-parallel transport in this direction. The extreme uniformity in sedimentary facies as seen in two nearby fully cored boreholes shows that the accommodation space created by rapid subsidence along the fault was continuously filled in to upper shoreface level by rapid longshore sediment influx from the north. In quiet periods with easterly winds and extreme low-water low tide, the small dinosaur creating the newly found footprint is interpreted to have walked in shallow beach pools, thus explaining the strange occurrence of the footprint in a marine deposit.

A Bird's Eye View of Northern Coast Salish Intertidal Resource Management Features, Southern British Columbia, Canada

ABSTRACT Marine intertidal modifications are a prevalent part of the archaeological landscape of the Northwest Coast. These modifications are physical manifestations of resource management activities foundational to the cultures of the region. However, the ability to identify and record the regional variation in these intertidal feature complexes is hampered by the large distances that need to be covered within extremely short and rare low tide sequences. We used aerial photography from a low-flying helicopter during extreme low tides to cover large areal expanses of shoreline in the traditional territory of the Northern Coast Salish. Our bird's eye view allowed us to identify diverse intertidal modifications and a suite of “elements”, the smallest repeating forms of intertidal modification. The elements that make up the features are in turn combined in different ways to create larger intertidal modifications. The elements provide the basis for an intertidal feature typology that is consistent with local oral historical knowledge about ancient management systems and activities.

Predicting patterns of stress and mortality in intertidal invertebrates: applications of biophysical ecology in a changing world

Abstract Background , Questions and Methods Recent studies have emphasized that local and geographic patterns of species distributions can be set by a variety of factors related to weather and climate, including exposure to lethal environmental conditions, indirect effects on consumers and competitors, and sublethal effects of physiological stress on growth and reproduction. Predicting where, when and with what magnitude these impacts are most (and least) likely to occur is imperative if we are to effectively plan for (i.e. adapt to) the effects of climate change.We developed a series of methods for translating patterns of environmental “signals” into organismal responses in intertidal ecosystems. Importantly, “organismal climatologies” – long term patterns of organism temperature measured using in situ biomimetic sensors - show distinct differences from patterns based on environmental temperature (air or water temperature). Similarly, we explored the use of dynamic energy budget models, linked to heat budget models of animal temperature, to examine temporal and spatial patterns of sublethal stress and growth. Results and Conclusions Comparisons of four different metrics of stress- seasonal averages, extreme temperatures, number of “stressful days” (&gt;32°C) and return time of stress events – show that temporal and spatial patterns of sublethal stress do not always track patterns of lethal exposure. In other words, simply knowing average temperature often tells us very little about exposure to extremes and vice versa. These results are consistent with the idea that extreme events can occur during the temporal synchrony of multiple “normal” events- for example low wave splash, extreme low tides and high solar radiation. Results also suggest that the combination of heat budget models with dynamic energy budgets are potentially an effective way to predict spatial patterns of intertidal organisms, but that we still need more physiological data regarding the role of aerial body temperature in driving growth and reproduction.

Coral mortality following extreme low tides and high solar radiation

Extreme tidal events are one of the most predictable natural disturbances in marine benthic habitats and are important determinants of zonation patterns in intertidal benthic communities. On coral reefs, spring low tides are recurrent disturbances, but are rarely reported to cause mass mortality. However, in years when extremely low tides coincide with high noon irradiances, they have the potential to cause widespread damage. Here, we report on such an event on a fringing coral reef in the central Great Barrier Reef (Australia) in September 2005. Visual surveys of colony mortality and bleaching status of more than 13,000 corals at 14 reef sites indicated that most coral taxa at wave-protected sites were severely affected by the event. Between 40 and 75% of colonies in the major coral taxa (Acropora, Porites, Faviidae, Mussidae and Pocilloporidae) were either bleached or suffered partial mortality. In contrast, corals at wave-exposed sites were largely unaffected (<1% of the corals were bleached), as periodic washing by waves prevented desiccation. Surveys along a 1–9 m depth gradient indicated that high coral mortality was confined to the tidal zone. However, 20–30% of faviid colonies were bleached throughout the depth range, suggesting that the increase in benthic irradiances during extreme low tides caused light stress in deeper water. Analyses of an 8-year dataset of tidal records for the area indicated that the combination of extended periods of aerial exposure and high irradiances occurs during May–September in most years, but that the event in September 2005 was the most severe. We argue that extreme low-tide, high-irradiance events are important structuring forces of intertidal coral reef communities, and can be as damaging as thermal stress events. Importantly, they occur at a time of year when risks from thermal stress, cyclones and monsoon-associated river run-off are minimal.

Hypoxia tolerance and air-breathing ability correlate with habitat preference in coral-dwelling fishes

Hypoxia tolerance and air-breathing occur in a range of freshwater, estuarine and intertidal fishes. Here it is shown for the first time that coral reef fishes from the genera Gobiodon, Paragobiodon and Caracanthus, which all have an obligate association with living coral, also exhibit hypoxia tolerance and a well-developed air-breathing capacity. All nine species maintained adequate respiration in water at oxygen concentrations down to 15–25% air saturation. This hypoxia tolerance is probably needed when the oxygen levels in the coral habitat drops sharply at night. Air-breathing abilities of the species correlated with habitat association, being greatest (equaling oxygen uptake in water) in species that occupy corals extending into shallow water, where they may become air exposed during extreme low tides. Air-breathing was less well-developed or absent in species inhabiting corals from deeper waters. Loss of scales and a network of subcutaneous capillaries appear to be key adaptations allowing cutaneous respiration in air. While hypoxia tolerance may be an ancestral trait in these fishes, air-breathing is likely to be a more recent adaptation exemplifying convergent evolution in the unrelated genera Gobiodon and Caracanthus in response to coral-dwelling lifestyles.

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND SURVIVAL OF WILD AND CULTURED INDIVIDUALS OF THE SOFTSHELL CLAM (MYA ARENARIA L.) IN EASTERN MAINE

A series of intertidal field experiments was conducted from 1986–2003 in eastern Maine to examine biotic and abiotic factors influencing the growth and survival of wild and cultured individuals of the softshell clam, Mya arenaria L. Separate experiments examined: (1) the efficacy of transferring sublegal wild clams (<50.8 mm SL) from areas near the high intertidal zone where shell growth was slow to areas where growth was predicted to be faster; (2) effects of tidal height on wild and cultured clam growth; (3) effects of spatial variation on cultured clam growth; (4) dispersion and growth of cultured juveniles in small experimental units; (5) effects of the naticid gastropod, Euspira heros Say, predation on survival of wild and cultured clams and (6) the species composition of large, crustacean predators that forage intertidally during periods of tidal inundation. Protective netting (4.2 mm aperture) increased recovery rate of transferred clams by 120% and resulted in a 3-fold enhancement of wild recruits. Effects of tidal height on wild clam growth revealed complex behaviors in >0 y-class individuals. Clams growing near the upper intertidal take >8 y to attain a legal size of 50.8 mm SL, whereas animals near the mid intertidal generally take 4.5–6.5 y. Unexpectedly, clams initially 38–54 mm SL and growing near the extreme low tide mark at a mud flat in Eastport, Maine, added, on average, <2 mm of new shell in a year, which was 8–10 mm SL less than animals at higher shore levels. It is hypothesized that biological disturbance by moon snails, that consumed >90% of clams at the low shore levels, contributed to this slow growth. In another field trial from 1986–1987, moon snails and other consumers were allowed access to clams ranging in size from 15–51 mm. E. heros preyed on clams over the entire size range and attacked clams between 31–40 mm at a rate that was nearly double what had been expected. Mean snail size was estimated to range from 10–52 mm shell height (SH), based on a laboratory study that yielded information about the linear relationship between snail size and its borehole diameter. In an experiment from June to September 1993, moon snails consumed >70% of juvenile clams (ca. 10 mm SL) within a month after planting at each of three tidal heights. Snail sizes ranged from 15–20 mm SD with larger individuals occurring near the upper intertidal zone. Green crabs, Carcinus maenas (L.) also prey heavily on softshell clam populations, but most studies that use shell damage to assign a predator have assumed that all crushing and chipping predation is because of this invasive species. An intertidal trapping study demonstrated that both green crabs and rock crabs, Cancer irroratus Say, are present during periods of tidal inundation, with the latter species accounting for ca. 40% of large crustacean numbers.

The use of spatial analysis for environmental assessment of shellfish aquaculture in Baynes Sound, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada

The Baynes Sound area accounts for a large proportion of shellfish aquaculture production in British Columbia. In response to non-industry concerns regarding impacts from this inter-tidal farming on bird populations in Baynes Sound, a quantitative inventory of aquaculture infrastructure, more specifically clam netting, was done. Low-level high-resolution air photos were taken during periods of extreme low tides, for all intertidal shellfish tenures in Baynes Sound. Images were geo-referenced and used to create a digital geographic file of clam netting. Geographic Information System (GIS) processing of this clam net coverage information combined with existing shore substrate data and new littoral bathymetry data for Baynes Sound resulted in an accurate enumeration of clam net coverages for each of Baynes Sound's major substrate types and for the farmed clam species' optimum habitat. The results showed shellfish tenures occupy 20.3% and clam netting 2.9% of the intertidal area of Baynes Sound as defined by the Baynes Sound Coastal Plan [British Columbia Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, 2000. Baynes Sound Coastal Plan for Shellfish Aquaculture. http://srmwww.gov.bc.ca/rmd/coastal/planning/south_island/baynes/docs/Baynes_Plan_Dec19_2002.pdf] boundary. Of the major substrate types in Baynes Sound, none had a clam net coverage exceeding 6%. Further analysis using optimal habitat areas, based on tidal heights, for each of three clam species [ Prothaca staminae (native littleneck), Nuttallia obscurata (varnish clam), and Tapes philippinarum (manila clam)] revealed no clam net coverage exceeded 20% of a shore type (based on a major substrate) found within optimal habitat areas (with the average below 6%). These techniques offer a cost-effective method of assessing inter-tidal resource utilization and provide a basis for time-series evaluation and a useful tool for adaptive resource management in Baynes Sound. More generally, these techniques can be used in any region where a shoreline classification system is complete to quantify the extent of intertidal habitat modification and be used as a decision support tool.

Channelled erosion through a marine dump site of dredge spoils at the mouth of the Puyallup River, Washington State, USA

Channels are relatively common on river-mouth deltas, but the process by which they arise from river sediment discharge is unclear because they can potentially be explained either by negatively buoyant (hyperpycnal) flows produced directly from the river outflow or by flows generated by repeated failure and mobilisation of sediment rapidly deposited at the delta front. Channels eroded through a dump site of dredge spoils are described here from multibeam and older sonar data collected in Commencement Bay, at the mouth of the Puyallup River. Shallow channels on the seaward upper surface of the dump site, away from any flows that could have been produced by delta front failures, suggest that at least some hyperpycnal flows were produced directly from the positively buoyant river outflow up to 200 m from the edge of the river mouth platform. The form of channel bed erosion is revealed by the longitudinal shape of the main eroded channel compared with the adjacent dump site profile. It suggests that the channel evolved by its steep front retreating, rather than by simple vertical entrenchment or diffusive-like evolution of the profile, a geometry interpreted as evidence that repeated failure of the bed occurred in response to shear stress imposed by bottom-travelling flows. Model calculations based on shear strengths back-calculated from the geometry of channel wall failures suggest that, if the main channel were eroded solely by hyperpycnal flows, their generation was remarkably efficient in order to create flows vigorous enough to cause channel bed failure. Besides the sediment concentration and discharge characteristics that have been considered to dictate the ability of rivers to produce hyperpycnal flows, it is suggested that the timing of floods with respect to the tidal cycle should also be important because extreme low tides may be needed to ensure that coarse sediment is transferred vigorously to the edge of river mouth platforms.