External Context Research Articles

Abstract This paper explores the profiles, motivations, and methods of human traffickers incarcerated in Romania, based on 20 semi-structured interviews conducted in 2018 at Jilava Prison. The study addresses the research question: "How do traffickers rationalize their involvement in human trafficking?" By developing typologies of traffickers and analyzing mechanisms of justification and motivation, the research highlights both the external socio-economic contexts and individual personal characteristics in which traffickers operate. It places these findings in the broader context of labor market imbalances and irregular migration routes that create favorable conditions for trafficking. This paper challenges simplistic portrayals of traffickers as a homogeneous group. These insights are useful not only in academic debates but also have important policy implications. This paper calls for further research and a stronger connection between migration, labor exploitation, and human trafficking.

Abstract Smoking is a social behaviour practised for several external (social) and internal (psychological) reasons. This paper examines the complex practice of smoking and its relationship with linguistic interaction, and psychological causes/responses by interpreting the act of smoking in Golda , the American film about the Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir during the 6th of October War between Egypt and Israel in 1973. The study utilises Kress and van Leeuwen’s Visual Grammar as an analytical tool amalgamated with Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory as a theoretical framework. This model is utilised to semiotically and psychologically deconstruct the scenes, including any act (or any indicator) of smoking in the film. Throughout the analysis, the communicative and the psychological patterning were examined to observe: (1) Golda’s linguistic and communicative behaviour, (2) the accompanying smoking behaviour, and (3) the psychological response during Golda’s communicative act. The analysis highlighted that Golda (interactant) communicated (via the language of smoking, or one of its indicators) with other characters (participants) in light of the internal (psychological) and external (social) contexts that led to Golda’s goal of declaring Israel to be a state (message). This study, thus, concluded that smoking is, indeed, a language that can accept the typical linguistic and dramatic analyses as verbal language and can be used as a coping mechanism.

Introduction. There is a strong need for an integrated model of youth’s economic behavior under conditions of wartime uncertainty. The article presents a socio-psychological model of technical students’ economic behaviors that links external socio-psychological factors with students’ internal psychological characteristics (values, money attitudes, traits, emotional intelligence, and self-regulation) through cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral components and explains the spectrum of rational/irrational behavior. Aim. To develop and theoretically substantiate a model of socio-psychological features of technical students’ economic behaviors. Methods. Theoretical-analytical synthesis and comparative analysis of the relevant scientific literature, systematization, and modeling. Results. The key determinants of students’ economic behaviors (value orientations, money attitudes, traits, emotional intelligence, and self-regulation) were determined and a multi-level model was proposed to highlight the impact of external contexts, via internal dispositions, on students’ cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral mechanisms. In other words, students’ social and economic characteristics determined the spectrum of their rational and irrational economic behaviors. Conclusions. A comparative analysis of the latest psychological studies on economic behavior allowed identifying the main determinants and empirical regularities of technical students’ economic behaviors and building a model of technical students’ socio-psychological features of their economic behaviors. This made it possible to demonstrate the impact of external socio-psychological factors and students’ psychological features (cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral) on their rational or irrational economic behaviors.

Contextuality (al-maqāmiyyah) is one of the central concepts in text linguistics, as it relates to the circumstances in which discourse is produced and to the situational factors that determine its meaning and communicative function. It reveals the relationship between the speaker, the addressee, and the external context of the text, and explains how language is adapted to suit the pragmatic situation. Through analysing contextuality in the novel, it becomes possible to uncover the mechanisms guiding narration and to understand how the text achieves coherence with its social, cultural, and political environment.

This research on family business goal formation examines a longitudinal case study of a family and its business, going “from rags to riches to rags again” over 140 years and four generations. Complementing family business literature on economic and noneconomic goals and the socioemotional wealth lens with self-determination theory, the analysis provides the basis for a process model of family business goal formation. This model highlights individual-level mechanisms through which firm-level objectives emerge. It also illustrates the interaction of the owner’s individual motivation with the family level while taking into account the influence of the business and external context.

This study examines business development strategies for a small and medium enterprise (Havana Collection) in the digital era and prioritizes actionable initiatives using a SWOT–QSPM approach. Internal and external factors were mapped through field observations and document review; weighted scores were computed with IFAS/EFAS, strategic alternatives were formulated via SWOT, and priorities were determined using the Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix. The firm’s IFAS and EFAS totals indicate a relatively favorable external context (IFAS ≈ 2.56; EFAS ≈ 2.71). QSPM highlights an SO-led pathway: intensifying digital marketing—including paid ads, creator collaborations, and affiliate programs—emerges as the top priority, while product development and market expansion serve as supportive moves. Managerially, the roadmap emphasizes content capability and performance analytics, sequencing quick wins while strengthening core processes. The study demonstrates how a compact, evidence-based framework translates qualitative factor mapping into an implementable priority list for SME growth in the digital landscape.

BackgroundContingency management (CM) is the most effective treatment for stimulant use, but is underutilized due to implementation challenges. Digital CM platforms have shown promise in addressing barriers to implementation, but there is limited understanding of factors impacting delivery of a digital CM platform over time. The goal of this longitudinal study was to measure change in implementation determinants affecting uptake of a digital CM platform in opioid treatment programs (OTPs) for individuals who are stimulant users. The study used a novel assessment tool called the Inventory of Factors Affecting Successful Implementation and Sustainment (IFASIS) to compare implementation determinants across OTPs and measure changes in determinants over a 6-month implementation period.MethodsFive OTPs in Rhode Island completed the IFASIS prior to and 6 months into implementation of a digital CM platform. OTP staff completed the IFASIS as a team. Twenty-seven items measuring external context, internal context, intervention factors, and recipient factors were each rated on the impact of the factor on implementation (scores 1–2 = barrier, 3 = neutral, 4–5 = facilitator) and the importance of the factor (1 = not important to 3 = very important). Teams also verbalized the rationale for their ratings. Interviews were recorded and transcribed for rapid qualitative analysis. Quantitative ratings were recorded and median scores for each item were calculated.ResultsInternal organizational factors such as leadership commitment to implementation and organizational policies were perceived as becoming greater barriers to implementation over time. Staff capacity was perceived as a stable facilitator across sites despite sites experiencing turnover and new hires from baseline to follow-up. Despite initial perceptions of recipient and intervention factors as facilitators, these factors were generally viewed as neutral or as barriers at follow-up. Staff comments revealed unanticipated challenges in referring and engaging patients that contributed to the shift in their ratings.DiscussionFindings underscore the complex and dynamic nature of implementation determinants and highlight the importance of monitoring recipient and intervention factors when implementing digital CM platforms. Results of this study suggest the need to help OTP staff set realistic expectations about the implementation process, particularly with regard to the ease of identifying and engaging patients.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s43058-025-00783-0.

Understanding public service performance remains a persistent challenge, particularly when services are delivered through complex interorganizational networks. This difficulty is amplified in contexts addressing wicked problems such as homelessness, where needs are multifaceted, solutions are interdependent, and outcomes are hard to measure. In the United States, the Continuum of Care (CoC) system represents a federally mandated and HUD-funded network model designed to coordinate local responses to homelessness through collaborative governance. Despite its standardized structure and federal oversight, CoC’s performance varies significantly across regions. This study investigates the conditions that influence the CoC network’s performance, focusing on the delivery of Permanent Supportive Housing (PSH) services, a critical intervention for addressing chronic homelessness. It applies to a theoretical framework that combines Ansell and Gash’s collaborative governance model with Emerson et al.’s integrative framework. This approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of internal network factors such as board size, nonprofit leadership, and federal funding, as well as external system contexts including political orientation, income levels, and rent affordability. Drawing on regression analysis of data from 343 CoCs across the United States, the study shows that federal funding, favorable political climates, and larger board size are significant predictors of PSH availability, while nonprofit leadership and income levels are not. Findings highlight the importance of aligning internal governance and external context to improve network outcomes.

This study investigates the effect of Green Strategy and International Operation on Carbon Emission Disclosure (CED), with a specific focus on the moderating role of Ownership Concentration. Using a quantitative associative approach and panel regression analysis, data were collected from 72 financial sector companies listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (IDX) over the period 2020–2023, resulting in 288 firm-year observations. The study employs a panel data regression model and Moderated Regression Analysis (MRA) to test the proposed hypotheses. The results reveal that both Green Strategy and International Operation have a significant positive effect on Carbon Emission Disclosure, confirming that environmentally oriented strategies and international business exposure lead to greater transparency in emission reporting. Moreover, Ownership Concentration does not moderate the relationship between Green Strategy and Carbon Emission Disclosure. However, it positively moderates the relationship between International Operation and Carbon Emission Disclosure, suggesting that highly concentrated ownership enhances the strategic influence of international exposure on environmental reporting. This study contributes to the growing body of literature on corporate environmental disclosure by providing empirical evidence from an emerging market context. The findings support the Stakeholder Theory and Legitimacy Theory, indicating that both internal corporate strategies and external operational contexts play vital roles in shaping environmental transparency.

When freely recalling events from the past, individuals tend to successively remember stimuli that were studied close together in time-a phenomenon known as temporal clustering. Temporal clustering is thought to occur because stimuli are encoded in relation to a slowly-drifting internal context; this internal context representation is then reinstated during recall, leading to clustered recall of stimuli that share a similar internal context. While several lines of evidence implicate the hippocampus in supporting internal context representations, there is limited evidence directly linking hippocampal drift during memory encoding to subsequent temporal clustering during recall. In a human fMRI experiment (n=38), we sought to influence the rate of internal context change during memory encoding and tested for corresponding effects on (a) temporal clustering and (b) hippocampal drift rate. To influence internal context, we manipulated the rate at which background scenes 'switched' while a list of words was encoded. Afterwards, subjects freely recalled as many words as possible. while switch rate had no effect on the total number of words recalled, it significantly influenced the degree of temporal clustering. Specifically, a higher switch rate was associated with less temporal clustering. Strikingly, this pattern of data was mirrored by drift rate in the hippocampus: a higher switch rate was associated with significantly lower hippocampal autocorrelation (more drift). Moreover, individual differences in hippocampal autocorrelation were positively correlated with temporal clustering. Collectively, these findings suggest that hippocampal drift rate during encoding and temporal clustering during recall each reflect a common internal context representation.Significance Statement The hippocampus is thought to support a gradually-drifting internal context representation that allows memories to be organized in time. This putative internal context representation helps explain the phenomenon of temporal clustering-that events encoded nearby in time are clustered together during recall. Yet, there is surprisingly limited evidence directly linking the drift of hippocampal activity patterns to the phenomenon of temporal clustering. Here, we show that manipulating the rate of external context change during memory encoding induced parallel changes in hippocampal drift rate during encoding and temporal clustering during subsequent recall. Critically, hippocampal drift rate also predicted the degree of temporal clustering across individuals. These findings suggest that hippocampal drift rate and temporal clustering reflect a common internal context representation.

Purpose Using a dynamic contingency theory perspective as the theoretical lens, the purpose of the study is to understand how sales and operations planning (S&OP) can be adapted to maintain a fit with internal and external context, thereby contributing to resilience and overall company performance. Design/methodology/approach The research is conducted as a single-case study of a leading manufacturing company in Denmark. Rich data spanning several years were gathered, enabling examination of process data to reveal causal relationships and temporal dynamics. Findings The main finding is that adaptive S&OP design is central to performance and resilience in dynamic business environments. Findings further indicate that an expansion of S&OP scope triggers a sequence of interdependent changes and that scope decisions need to be governed considering S&OP maturity and technological advancements, where advanced planning systems are seen to both enable and constrain scope expansions. The inclusion of new products in S&OP has been found to call for flexibility in several design parameters. Leadership plays a pivotal role in adapting the S&OP process to sustain planning performance. Originality/value The research provides new insights into how firms can dynamically adjust S&OP to maintain contextual fit, performance and resilience in operations. It promotes S&OP as an adaptive process and outlines a process framework building on standard S&OP. The study highlights S&OP scope as a critical design parameter, which has been previously overlooked or considered contextual.

Organizations have embraced sustainability certifications as a way of demonstrating their prosocial commitments. These certifications are often rigorous and resource-intensive, and yet some certified organizations increase their efforts beyond receiving the certification. To understand why, we revisit the literature on escalation of commitment to theorize the escalation of prosocial commitment. We test our framework by analyzing why B Corporations (B Corps)-businesses that have been certified for their prosocial commitments-would participate in an initiative that challenged them to improve their diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) practices and whether their efforts have any effect. Our framework emphasizes three organization-level drivers of escalation of prosocial commitment: image and identity, internal and external context, and urgency to demonstrate impact. Our findings largely support these drivers. Furthermore, escalation of prosocial commitment leads to improvements in both DEI practices and sustainability practices more generally and has collective spillover benefits, including reduced certification attrition rates and a positive shift in the DEI profiles of new B Corps that certified for the first time after the conclusion of the initiative. We also find a surprising outcome-what we call a paradox of inclusivity: B Corps with less emphasis on DEI practices, despite being strong in other sustainability areas, were more likely to exit the B Corp movement after the initiative. Our research contributes to the escalation of commitment literature, reveals practice implications for certifying bodies and organizations seeking to foster social impact, and offers insights to policymakers about potential levers for remaking capitalism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).

Animal behavior is dynamically shaped by internal states and external social contexts. This study examines how internal states and social buffering influence aggression and social behavior. Food deprivation and mirror stimuli amplified aggression and reduced exploratory activity, highlighting a state-dependent shift in behavioral priorities. However, the presence of conspecific cues significantly mitigated aggression, irrespective of hunger, underscoring the regulatory role of social interaction. These results demonstrate the critical interplay between metabolic and social factors in modulating stress-related behaviors and position zebrafish as a powerful model for unraveling the neurobiological mechanisms underlying social modulation and adaptive behavioral strategies.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-17318-1.

Interactive e-learning modules are increasingly being used to educate nurses about preventing and detecting chronic kidney disease (CKD). These modules aim to improve knowledge, screening practices, skills, and self-management behaviours. This Delphi study aims to provide a prioritized list of strategies, content, and delivery methods to guide future implementation efforts and improve primary and secondary prevention of conservative CKD care in Syria. A second-round Delphi study was performed using the input of 15 CKD clinical content experts (nephrologist-scientist & medical educator) involved in education and clinical practice from March to the end of April 2025. Eligible participants sent an e-mail containing an information sheet and an invitation to participate in the study. Consent is obtained before participants proceed to the survey. In the first round, we identified several potential strategies for CKD prevention education. However, consensus was not reached on all of them. We modified and refined these strategies based on the CKD clinical content experts ' opinions. We asked them to re-evaluate and re-rank these modified strategies in the second round via e-mail. Experts use predefined statements to score the effectiveness of CKD prevention strategies and delivery methods based on existing best practices specified in clinical guidelines, systematic reviews, and research studies. Descriptive statistics such as the median, interquartile range (IQR), and percentage agreement are used to assess consensus. Inferential statistics were used to measure participant agreement using Kendall's coefficient, and for stability between rounds, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used. We identified (9 primary and 32 secondary strategies) evidence-based CKD prevention strategies to implement within Syria and limited resource areas. Three strategies were deleted as not feasible and related to the Syrian context, and nine strategies were modified based on expert feedback on rationale and suggestions related to culture availability and cost-effectiveness. We added one strategy to replace the Genetic screening strategies with early and regular screening for high-risk populations. Challenges to implementing evidence-based CKD prevention strategies seem to exist in professional, organizational, and external contexts, which should all be considered to increase implementation success within resource-limited areas such as Syria. Using the Delphi approach to tailor the e-learning module content to the specific needs of nurses, depending on the realities of the Syrian context, by synthesizing clinical work with evidence-based CKD prevention strategies and an obvious need to create a common foundation for nurses' knowledge of CKD prevention. This study offers actionable strategies to strengthen CKD prevention in resource-limited settings like Syria. Prioritizing cost-effective tools, culturally adapted education, offline modules, Arabic translations, and nurse-friendly protocols is a blueprint for similar conflict-affected regions.

School serves as the primary context for adolescent development and is a crucial platform for socialization and identity formation. Adolescents have specific developmental needs, including seeking peer socialization, a sense of school belonging, and a positive self-perception. Within this context, teachers—who interact most directly with students—play an irreplaceable role in guiding and advancing students' socialization and identity formation. This study investigates the impact of teacher behaviors on students' sense of school belonging and self-efficacy within East Asian educational contexts. Using structural equation modeling, we analyze a subset of 1,391 Chinese middle-school students drawn from the PISA survey. Results indicate that teacher behaviors are essential for fostering students' development and growth. Specifically, teacher support for learning and assistance, feedback delivered in a readily understandable way, and teacher enthusiasm were identified as important promoters of students' school belonging. However, regarding perceived teacher support, the findings suggest potentially conflicting effects on belonging: the observed negative effect indicates that when perceived support fails to enhance belonging, it may paradoxically undermine students' confidence in their own competence. Taken together, these findings suggest that the external educational context of the school and students' subjective experiences interact to predict achievement-related outcomes.

Purpose This study examines how hub firms in the digital innovation ecosystem utilize their digital ecosystem orientation (DEO) to drive sustainable evolution during the twin transition of digital technologies and sustainability principles. The study defines DEO and its stage-based features, with a goal of building a three-stage theoretical framework. Due to differences in samples, theoretical perspectives, and research contexts, previous studies rarely focused on DEO’s dynamic development, resulting in fragmented findings that lack theoretical dialogue and knowledge accumulation. Design/methodology/approach This study employs a qualitative meta-analysis to synthesize 25 studies and 39 cases from diverse countries and industries and systematically examine DEO’s dimensions and evolutionary trajectory. The antecedents–process–consequences framework is utilized to analyze hub firms’ strategic adaptation mechanisms across ecosystem stages. Findings This study’s findings reveal that a hub firm’s DEO comprises three core dimensions: modular design, digital identity shaping, and ecological institutional norms. Its evolution is driven by external digital economy contexts and internal enterprise transformation needs. The results further identify a three-stage evolutionary pattern. In the first phase, hub firms adopt a dominant DEO using center empowerment to aggregate resources and build the ecosystem’s foundation. In the second phase, hub firms shift to a cooperative DEO that emphasizes bilateral cooperation and resource sharing to strengthen innovation capacity. At maturity, hub firms pursue a multilateral DEO that engages multiple stakeholders to reconstruct resources, expand innovation, and establish cross-industry linkages. Originality/value This study is the first to systematically define core DEO attributes and develop a framework that captures the dynamic nature of digital innovation ecosystems. Furthermore, DEO expands strategic orientation and ecosystem theories, guiding enterprises to implement phased strategic actions in complex digital environments. These insights offer practical guidance for addressing both digital innovation and sustainability.

SummaryAnimals can flexibly initiate actions guided by external cues or by internal drive. Disease states often disrupt cue-driven and self-paced actions in distinct ways, underscoring separable neural mechanisms. Such differences could arise from specialized circuits dedicated to each action mode or shared neuronal populations that shift their dynamics across contexts. To distinguish between these possibilities, we developed a task in which mice performed a lever press either spontaneously or in response to a cue, enabling direct comparison of internally and externally triggered movements. Two-photon calcium imaging in dorsolateral striatum revealed subpopulations of neurons tuned to the cue, movement, or post-movement periods. One cluster was consistently active around movement regardless of context, yet population dynamics diverged prior to action. Support vector machine decoding and subspace analyses revealed distinct “context” and “action” components within the same population. Both D1- and D2-SPNs contributed to both subspaces, with D1-SPNs more active at the time of the sensory stimulus. These results show that context shapes dynamics in shared action-encoding neurons within striatal circuits, suggesting that different initiation contexts are funneled into a common action space that flexibly supports movement execution.

Purpose The purpose of this work is to explain sustainable innovative behaviors in Italian agrifood firms and to explore concretely how by pursuing openness to open innovations the Italian agrifood firms become sustainable and especially to highlight the fact that the food firms (their manufacturing systems) redefine relations with suppliers (agriculture operators) and innovative supplier actors (agronomic researchers, innovation communities, start-up, etc.). Design/methodology/approach The methodology of analysis makes use of an empirical survey conducted over a short period (2020–2024) but characterized by profound technological changes that have heavily pervaded the agrifood supply chain. In this context the resource-based view perspective and the relational theory are taken as the most appropriate theoretical references for empirically testing the relationships among Italian firms belonging to diversified sub-sectors of the Italian agrifood supply chain (suppliers, packaging materials manufacturers, machinery manufacturers, biomethane producers) and their great competition in a global context. Findings Among the main results we highlight first of all that the choices of sustainable innovative processes, such as innovative and efficient agricultural techniques, the efficiently use of new manufacturing process technologies, the industrial use of new raw materials and with different nutrients, etc. generate the better quality outcomes of the each analyzed firm or farm of the supply chain. Secondly, we detect the interaction between the economic actors of the Italian agrifood supply chain, of both the new innovative entrants and those who have always been part of it, have rethought their role in the supply chain innovative processes; it is at the base of the new ways of competing of the Italian agrifood supply chain in an innovative sustainable way. By analyzing cases, the study aims to show that farmers and agrifood firms are very interested to explore border line technologies. Research limitations/implications Among the limits of the research still in progress are on the one hand the heterogeneity of the case studies, by size, sub-sector of belonging, year of birth; on the other, the implementation in specific cases of innovative technological frameworks in a disruptive sense, that are only noticeably manifested in recent years. This gives value to the methodology, purely qualitative, adopted in this study, well-knowing that it has undoubtedly some limitations. Practical implications The agricultural context lends itself to studies that show that farmers and agrifood firms are very interested to explore in terms of border line technologies because of the significance of the sector for the economies of countries, the role of efficiency and potential optimization within the agrifood sector and the role that the sector plays in transitioning toward net zero targets. The chosen case studies highlight how the firms belonging to the Italian agrifood sectors have rethought and re-imagined the traditional ways of making innovation and to redesign processes that shape technology adoption within the agritech sector. Social implications The research work presents the results of a study on green management with reference to the most relevant strategic decisions by companies, belonging in agrifood and the concomitant design by management of new relational governance systems in supply chain (the one to which they belong, the new one different from the one to which they belong, the radically new sector that help to create). We found that a significant number of firms in the agri-food sector are investing in company’s digital infrastructure design considering the importance of the necessary resources, which, in particular, are cultural and managerial for businesses in the sector, it is important, in the field of digital technology research, to focus on sectors that have proven to be consistent in terms of sustainable challenge (digital technology, R&D mode choices). Originality/value New and unusual methods of doing research in house or seizing innovative opportunities in external contexts emerge. These new innovative phenomena can address calls for research on the era of restructuring the methods of innovation of the firms operating in the production chains or in actors belonging to “upstream” steps of the Italian agrifood supply chain (farmers, research agronomists, research institutes, etc.); furthermore, these new ways of innovating appear in the production chains to which they belong or in new production chains in which completely new players emerge (start-up, new actors of spin-offs phenomena, innovative hubs, etc.).

This study departs from the assumption that film, as a representation of social reality, can serve as an object of pragmatic analysis, particularly in the study of deixis. The film Sayap-Sayap Patah, directed by Rudi Soedjarwo, was selected for its expressive utterances and because it has not been widely analyzed within linguistic studies. The objective of this research is to describe the types and forms of deixis used in the characters’ utterances. The investigation was carried out using a descriptive qualitative approach, employing observation methods and note-taking techniques. The data source consists of dialogues in the film that contain elements of personal, temporal, and spatial deixis. The data analysis technique used is the extralingual matching method, which connects language use with external contexts such as time, place, and participants. The analysis was conducted by examining each occurrence of deixis contextually within the dialogue, allowing for an in-depth understanding of its function and meaning in character interactions. The findings reveal that there are 18 deixis data found in the film, consisting of 9 personal deixis, 6 temporal deixis, and 3 spatial deixis.

Optimal decision-making requires consideration of internal and external contexts. Biased decision-making is a transdiagnostic symptom of neuropsychiatric disorders. We created a computational model demonstrating how the striosome compartment of the striatum constructs a context-dependent mathematical space for decision-making computations, and how the matrix compartment uses this space to define action value. The model explains multiple experimental results and unifies other theories like reward prediction error, roles of the direct versus indirect pathways, and roles of the striosome versus matrix, under one framework. We also found, through new analyses, that striosome and matrix neurons increase their synchrony during difficult tasks, caused by a necessary increase in dimensionality of the space. The model makes testable predictions about individual differences in disorder susceptibility, decision-making symptoms shared among neuropsychiatric disorders, and differences in neuropsychiatric disorder symptom presentation. The model provides evidence for the central role that striosomes play in neuroeconomic and disorder-affected decision-making.