Expression Of Iron Regulatory Protein Research Articles

Inhibition of IRP2-dependent reprogramming of iron metabolism suppresses tumor growth in colorectal cancer

BackgroundDysregulation of iron metabolism is implicated in malignant transformation, cancer progression, and therapeutic resistance. Here, we demonstrate that iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) preferentially regulates iron metabolism and promotes tumor growth in colorectal cancer (CRC).MethodsIRP2 knockdown and knockout cells were generated using RNA interference and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9 methodologies, respectively. Cell viability was evaluated using both CCK-8 assay and cell counting techniques. Furthermore, IRP2 inhibition was determined by surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and RNA immunoprecipitation (IP). The suppressive effects of IRP2 were also corroborated in both organoid and mouse xenograft models, providing a comprehensive validation of IRP2’s role.ResultsWe have elucidated the role of IRP2 as a preferential regulator of iron metabolism, actively promoting tumorigenesis within CRC. Elevated levels of IRP2 expression in patient samples are correlated with diminished overall survival, thereby reinforcing its potential role as a prognostic biomarker. The functional suppression of IRP2 resulted in a pronounced delay in tumor growth. Building on this proof of concept, we have developed IRP2 inhibitors that significantly reduce IRP2 expression and hinder its interaction with iron-responsive elements in key iron-regulating proteins, such as ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1) and transferrin receptor (TFRC), culminating in iron depletion and a marked reduction in CRC cell proliferation. Furthermore, these inhibitors are shown to activate the AMPK-ULK1-Beclin1 signaling cascade, leading to cell death in CRC models.ConclusionsCollectively, these findings highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting IRP2 to exploit the disruption of iron metabolism in CRC, presenting a strategic advancement in addressing a critical area of unmet clinical need.

Abstract 5937: KS20226, a first-in-class IRP2 inhibitor, preferentially induces reprogramming of iron metabolism and suppresses tumor growth in colorectal cancer

Abstract Background: Iron homeostasis plays a role in redox activity, mitochondrial function, and cell cycle regulation. Specifically, the dysregulation of iron metabolism is implicated in malignant transformation and cancer progression. Iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) is crucial for maintaining balance within iron levels and primarily controls genes associated with iron utilization. Our discovery of KS20226, a first-in-class IRP2 inhibitor, reveals remarkable potential as an effective anti-cancer drug candidate. We have elucidated the mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of KS20226, thereby highlighting the feasibility of targeting IRP2 in colorectal cancer (CRC). Methods: The proliferation inhibitory activity of KS20226 was assessed the CCK-8 and 3D Spheroid models. To investigate mitochondrial function, we conducted measurement of oxidative phosphorylation (OCR) and glycoPER. Furthermore, gene expression analysis was performed through RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) using the Illumina HiSeq 2500 system platform (Macrogen Inc.). Differential expressed gene (DEG) analysis was carried out using the R package DESeq2, and pathway enrichment analysis was analyzed using GSEA (v_4.2.3.). For the observation of autophagic morphology, we utilized transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunofluorescence staining targeting the autophagy marker LC3B, and immunoblotting. Results: KS20226 exhibited a remarkable growth inhibitory effect in 10 different CRC cell lines, with GI50 values ranging from 1 to 10 μM. KS20226 suppressed IRP2 expression and the corresponding occupancy of the iron-responsive elements of ferritin H and transferrin receptor 1, resulting in iron deprivation, and efficiently controlled CRC growth. Pharmacologic inhibition of IRP2 induced reprogramming of mitochondrial respiration, reducing reliance on oxidative phosphorylation. The observed mitochondrial dysfunction induced by KS20226 was correlated with pathway analysis, revealing a decrease in the gene-set for HALLMARK_OXIDATIVE_PHOSPHORYLATION (NES = -1.38, p-value = 0.008) and an increase in the gene-set for POSITIVE_REGULATION_OF_AUTOPHAGY (NES=1.43, p-value=0.016). Immunoblotting demonstrated that KS20226 activated the phosphorylation of AMPK, ULK, and Beclin1 cascade, leading to the autophagic cell death of the CRC cells. Conclusions: The reliance of cancer cells on iron metabolism to drive proliferation has led to the development of therapeutic strategies targeting the inhibition of IRP2. KS20226, a first-in-class IPR2 inhibitor, exhibits distinct therapeutic properties, such as perturbation of mitochondrial iron metabolism and induction of autophagic cell death. Our findings represent important progress toward exploiting IRP2-mediated abnormal iron metabolism in cancer, an unexplored area of research with substantial unmet needs. Citation Format: Jieon Hwang, Areum Park, Chinwoo Kim, Chang Gon Kim, Jaesung Kwak, Byungil Kim, Hyunjin Shin, Minhee Ku, Jaemoon Yang, Ayoung Baek, Jiwon Choi, Hocheol Lim, Kyoung Tai No, Xianghua Zhao, Uyeong Choi, Tae Il Kim, Kyu-Sung Jeong, Hyuk Lee, Sang Joon Shin. KS20226, a first-in-class IRP2 inhibitor, preferentially induces reprogramming of iron metabolism and suppresses tumor growth in colorectal cancer [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2024; Part 1 (Regular Abstracts); 2024 Apr 5-10; San Diego, CA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2024;84(6_Suppl):Abstract nr 5937.

Activation of Nrf2 inhibits ferroptosis and protects against oxaliplatin-induced ototoxicity

Oxaliplatin, as a third-generation platinum-based anticancer drug, is widely used in tumor therapy of many systems. Clinically, oxaliplatin has a number of serious side effects, most notably neuropathy and ototoxicity. The degeneration of cochlear hair cells is the main reason for the hearing loss caused by platinum-based drugs. However, the mechanism of oxaliplatin-induced cochlear hair cell death remains unclear. Ferroptosis is a novel cell injury pattern triggered by the accumulation of iron hydroperoxides in lipids and dependent on the participation of iron ions, which plays an important role in a variety of diseases. Whether ferroptosis is involved in oxaliplatin-induced ototoxicity has not been reported. In this study, we observed that oxaliplatin treatment resulted in lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in OC1 cells, which may be an early alteration in the occurrence of ferroptosis. Additional treatment with ferroptosis inducer or inhibitor significantly aggravated or ameliorated oxaliplatin-induced cytotoxicity. Similarly, inhibition of ferroptosis also protected cochlear hair cells against oxaliplatin-induced injury. In addition, the expression of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) was significantly increased after oxaliplatin treatment, and treatment with the Nrf2 agonist, resveratrol, dramatically attenuated cochlear hair cell damage induced by oxaliplatin. Activation of Nrf2 significantly decreased the expression of iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP-2) and reversed the expression of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4). Collectively, our results demonstrated that activation of Nrf2 alleviates oxaliplatin-induced cochlear hair cell damage by inhibiting ferroptosis, which may be a new mechanism of oxaliplatin-induced ototoxicity.

Expression of genes related to iron homeostasis in breast cancer

The dysfunctions in the metabolism of iron have an important role in many pathological conditions, ranging from disease with iron deposition to cancer. Studies on malignant diseases of the breast reported irregular expression in genes associated with iron metabolism. The variations are related to findings that have prognostic significance. This study evaluated the relationship of the expression levels of transferrin receptor 1 (TFRC), iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1), hepcidin (HAMP), ferroportin 1 (FPN1), hemojuvelin (HFE2), matriptase 2 (TMPRSS6), and miR-122 genes in the normal and malignant tissues of breast cancer patients. The normal and malignant tissues from 75 women with breast malignancies were used in this study. The patients did not receive any treatment previously. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was used in figuring the levels of gene expression associated with iron metabolism. When the malignant and normal tissues gene expression levels were analyzed, expression of TFRC increased (1.586-fold); IRP1 (0.594 fold) and miR-122 (0.320 fold) expression decreased; HAMP, FPN1, HFE2, and TMPRSS6 expressions did not change. FPN1 and IRP1 had a positive association, and this association was statistically significant (r = 0.266; p = 0.022). IRP1 and miR-122 had a positive association, and this association had statistical significance (r = 0.231; p = 0.048). Our study portrayed the important association between genes involved in iron hemostasis and breast malignancy. The results could be used to establish new diagnostic techniques in the management of breast malignancies. The alterations in the metabolism of malignant breast cells with normal breast cells could be utilized to achieve advantages in treatment.

Quercetin Inhibits Hephaestin Expression and Iron Transport in Intestinal Cells: Possible Role of PI3K Pathway

Previous studies demonstrated that quercetin, a polyphenolic compound, inhibits the transport of iron by down-regulation of ferroportin (FPN1), an iron export protein. We have previously demonstrated that activation of the PI3K signaling pathway by zinc stimulates the intestinal iron uptake and transport by stimulating the expression of iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) dependent divalent metal iron transporter 1 (DMT1, apical iron transporter) expression and caudal-related homeobox transcription factor 2 (CDX2) dependent hephaestin (HEPH, basolateral ferroxidase required for iron oxidation) expression, respectively. Since polyphenols are antagonists of the PI3K pathway, we hypothesized that quercetin might inhibit basolateral iron transport via the down-regulation of hephaestin (HEPH). Here in we investigated the effect of quercetin on iron uptake, transport, and expression of iron transporters in intestinal cells. In differentiated Caco-2 cells grown on permeable supports, quercetin inhibited the basolateral iron transport while increasing the iron uptake, possibly due to higher cellular retention. Further, quercetin down-regulated the protein and mRNA expression of HEPH and FPN1 but not that of IRP2 or DMT1. In addition, quercetin also abrogated the zinc-induced Akt, CDX2 phosphorylation, and HEPH expression. Together these results suggest that inhibition of iron transport by quercetin is mediated via the down-regulation of CDX2-dependent HEPH expression via inhibition of the PI3K pathway.

Lactobacillus johnsonii L531 Ameliorates Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Diarrhea by Modulating Iron Homeostasis and Oxidative Stress via the IRP2 Pathway.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) has evolved mechanisms to evade the host's nutritional immunity and thus promote bacterial growth by using the iron in the host. However, the detailed mechanisms of S. Typhimurium induce dysregulation of iron homeostasis and whether Lactobacillus johnsonii L531 can alleviate the iron metabolism disorder caused by S. Typhimurium has not been fully elucidated. Here, we show that S. Typhimurium activated the expression of iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2), transferrin receptor 1, and divalent metal transporter protein 1 and suppressed the expression of iron exporter ferroportin, which resulted in iron overload and oxidative stress, inhibiting the key antioxidant proteins NF-E2-related factor 2, Heme Oxygenase-1, and Superoxide Dismutase in vitro and in vivo. L. johnsonii L531 pretreatment effectively reversed these phenomena. IRP2 knockdown inhibited iron overload and oxidative damage induced by S. Typhimurium in IPEC-J2 cells, while IRP2 overexpression promoted iron overload and oxidative damage caused by S. Typhimurium. Interestingly, the protective effect of L. johnsonii L531 on iron homeostasis and antioxidant function was blocked following IRP2 overexpression in Hela cells, demonstrating that L. johnsonii L531 attenuates disruption of iron homeostasis and consequent oxidative damage caused by S. Typhimurium via the IRP2 pathway, which contributes to the prevention of S. Typhimurium diarrhea in mice.

Effect of electroacupuncture of "Weizhong" (BL40) on iron metabolism disorder in rats with lumbar multifidus muscle injury

To observe the effect of electroacupuncture (EA) of "Weizhong" (BL40) on the disorder of iron metabolism and the level of oxidative stress after lumbar multifidus muscle injury (LMMI), so as to explore its mechanisms underlying promoting the repair of LMMI. Male SD rats were randomly divided into normal, model and EA groups (6 rats in each group). The LMMI model was established by injecting 0.5% bupivacaine (BPVC) solution (400 μL) into the lumbar multifidus muscle with the syringe-needle close to the spinous process (L4-L5). Twenty-four hours after successful establishment of the model, EA (2 Hz/15 Hz, 2 mA) was applied to bilateral BL40 for 30 min, once a day for 2 days. Histopathological changes of the multifid muscle were observed under microscope after H.E. staining, and the iron granules in the multifid muscle tissue observed after Prussian blue staining. The expression of glutathione synthase (GSS) was detected by Western blot, and the expressions of iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1), ferroportin (Fpn), ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1, iron metabolism-related proteins) and gluta-thione peroxidase 4 (GPX4, functions in protecting cells against detrimental lipid peroxidation and governing a novel form of regulated necrotic cell death, called ferroptosis) mRNAs were detected by quantitative real-time PCR. The contents of glutathione (GSH) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured by biochemical methods. H.E. staining showed large areas of necrosis and breakage of muscle fibers, disordered arrangement of muscle fibers, widened muscle cell space, accompanying with a large number of inflammatory cell infiltration in the multifidus muscle tissue of the model group, which was relatively milder in the EA group. Outcomes of Prussian blue staining showed that compared with the normal group, there were more iron particles in the multifidus muscle tissue and enlarged muscle fiber gaps, which was also milder in the EA group. Compared with the normal group, the expression level of IRP1 mRNA and content of MDA were significantly increased (P<0.001), the expression levels of Fpn, FTH1 and GPX4 mRNAs and GSS protein, and the content of GSH were considerably decreased (P<0.001) in the model group. In comparison with the model group, the increase of IRP1 mRNA expression and MDA content, as well as the decrease of Fpn, FTH1 and GPX4 mRNAs expressions and GSH content were reversed in the EA group (P<0.001,P<0.05,P<0.01). EA of BL40 has a protect effect in BPVC-induced injury of lumbar multifidus muscle in rats, which may be related to its functions in improving iron metabolism to reduce oxidative damage by regulating expression of IRP1, Fpn and FTH1.

Human IRP1 Translocates to the Nucleus in a Cell-Specific and Iron-Dependent Manner.

Iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) is a bifunctional protein with mutually exclusive RNA-binding or enzymatic activities that depend on the presence of a 4Fe-4S cluster. While IRP1 is a well-established cytosolic protein, work in a Drosophila model suggested that it may also exhibit nuclear localization. Herein, we addressed whether mammalian IRP1 can likewise translocate to the nucleus. We utilized primary cells and tissues from wild type and Irp1−/− mice, as well as human cell lines and tissue biopsy sections. IRP1 subcellular localization was analyzed by Western blotting, immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry. We did not detect presence of nuclear IRP1 in wild type mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), primary hepatocytes or whole mouse liver. However, we observed IRP1-positive nuclei in human liver but not ovary sections. Biochemical fractionation studies revealed presence of IRP1 in the nucleus of human Huh7 and HepG2 hepatoma cells, but not HeLa cervical cancer cells. Importantly, nuclear IRP1 was only evident in iron-replete cells and disappeared following pharmacological iron chelation. These data provide the first experimental evidence for nuclear IRP1 expression in mammals, which appears to be species- and cell-specific. Furthermore, they suggest that the nuclear translocation of IRP1 is mediated by an iron-dependent mechanism.

6-Hydroxydopamine Induces Abnormal Iron Sequestration in BV2 Microglia by Activating Iron Regulatory Protein 1 and Inhibiting Hepcidin Release.

Disrupted iron homeostasis in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) is an important pathological mechanism in Parkinson’s disease (PD). It is unclear what role microglia play in iron metabolism and selective iron deposition in the SNpc of PD brain. In this study, we observed that 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induced the expression of divalent metal transporter-1 (DMT1) and iron influx in BV2 microglia cells, which might be associated with the upregulation of iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) expression. Moreover, we found that 6-OHDA had no significant effect on the expression of ferroportin 1 (FPN1) and iron efflux in BV2 microglial cells, which might be the combined action of IRP1 upregulation and reduced hepcidin levels. Furthermore, 6-OHDA treatment activated BV2 microglia and enhanced the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Interestingly, iron overloading suppressed IRP1 expression, thus downregulating DMT1 and upregulating FPN1 levels in these microglial cells. On the contrary, iron deficiency activated IRP1, leading to increased expression of DMT1 and decreased expression of FPN1—which indicates that activated IRP1 induces iron overloading in 6-OHDA-treated microglia, but not iron overloading modulates the expression of IRP1. Taken together, our data suggest that 6-OHDA can regulate the expression of DMT1 and FPN1 by activating IRP1 and inhibiting hepcidin release, thus leading to abnormal iron sequestration in microglia. In addition, 6-OHDA can activate microglia, which leads to increased release of pro-inflammatory factors that can further induce genome damage in dopaminergic neurons.

Vitamin B6 Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-induced Myocardial Injury by Ferroptosis and Apoptosis Regulation.

Vitamin B6 (VitB6) is a water-soluble vitamin and includes pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and their phosphorylated forms. In the current study, we demonstrated that VitB6 could improve lipopolysaccharide (LPS)–induced myocardial injury. We demonstrated that VitB6 can suppress LPS-induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation that lead to ferroptosis and apoptosis in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, we found that VitB6 can regulate the expression of iron regulatory proteins, maintaining intracellular iron homeostasis. To confirm that VitB6 could inhibit LPS-induced ferroptosis and apoptosis, we pretreated mice with ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) and emricasan that efficiently mimicked VitB6 pharmacological effects. This improved the survival rate of mice challenged with a high LPS dose. In addition, VitB6 regulated the expression of LPS-induced apoptosis-related proteins and iron regulatory proteins. It mediated the expression of Nrf2, transcription factor NF-E2–related factor 2, which promoted the expression of antioxidant enzymes and restrained LPS-induced ferroptosis and apoptosis. Overall, our results indicated that VitB6 can be used on novel therapies to relieve LPS-induced myocardial injury.

Exosomes From miR-19b-3p-Modified ADSCs Inhibit Ferroptosis in Intracerebral Hemorrhage Mice

Objectives: Effective treatments for intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) are limited until now. Ferroptosis, a novel form of iron-dependent cell death, is implicated in neurodegeneration diseases. Here, we attempted to investigate the impact of exosomes from miR-19b-3p-modified adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) on ferroptosis in ICH.Methods: Collagenase was used to induce a mouse model of ICH and hemin was used to induce ferroptosis in cultured neurons. Exosomes were isolated from mimic NC- or miR-19b-3p mimic-transfected ADSCs (ADSCs-MNC-Exos or ADSCs-19bM-Exos, respectively) and then administered to ICH mice or hemin-treated neurons. ICH damage was evaluated by assessing the neurological function of ICH mice and cell viability of neurons. Ferroptosis was evaluated in mouse brains or cultured neurons. The interaction between miR-19b-3p and iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) 3′-UTR was analyzed by performing luciferase reporter assay.Results: Ferroptosis occurred in ICH mice, which also exhibited decreased miR-19b-3p and increased IRP2 expression. IRP2 was a direct target of miR-19b-3p, and IRP2 expression was repressed by ADSCs-19bM-Exos. Importantly, ADSCs-19bM-Exos effectively attenuated hemin-induced cell injury and ferroptosis. Moreover, ADSCs-19bM-Exos administration significantly improved neurologic function and inhibited ferroptosis in ICH mice.Conclusion: Exosomes from miR-19b-3p-modified ADSCs inhibit ferroptosis in ICH mice.

Ndfip1 Prevents Rotenone-Induced Neurotoxicity and Upregulation of α-Synuclein in SH-SY5Y Cells.

Nedd4 family interacting protein 1 (Ndfip1) is an adaptor of Nedd4-family ubiquitin ligases. Experimental results showed that Ndfip1 had a potential neuroprotective effect in neurology diseases. However, the neuroprotective effect and the underlying mechanisms of Ndfip1 in Parkinson's disease (PD) have not yet been fully elucidated. Therefore, in this study, we explored the neuroprotective effect of Ndfip1 against mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone in a human dopaminergic neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell line and further elucidated its possible underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that rotenone could induce the up-regulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) in both mRNA and protein levels. The expression of Ndfip1 decreased at 24 h after rotenone treatment. Further study showed that high expression of Ndfip1 could protect SH-SY5Y cells against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity and antagonize the rotenone-induced increase in α-syn protein levels. In addition, high expression of Ndfip1 inhibited rotenone-induced increase in the protein levels of caspase-3 and decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Further study showed that Ndfip1 did not affect the protein expression of iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1), transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), while antagonized the increase in protein levels of P62 and ferritin L caused by rotenone. Our findings provide specific identification of Ndfip1 proteins to inhibit the increase of α-syn in rotenone-induced SH-SY5Y cells. Ndfip1 might be a new theoretical drug target for the prevention and treatment of PD.

Expression of iron regulatory proteins in full-term swine placenta.

In swine, even though the pregnant sows were with iron abundance, the inborn iron reserve of piglets was compromised. This indicates the insufficiency of molecular machinery involved in local placental iron flux. Here, we investigated the expression of iron regulatory proteins like hepcidin and ferroportin and also their association with iron reserve, inflammation and oxidative stress in placenta of full-term pregnant sows (n=6). Amplification and sequencing of placental DNA confirmed the presence of hepcidin (MN579557) and ferroportin (MN565887) sequences and their 100% identity with existing GenBank data. Real-time amplification of placental mRNA revealed significant higher expression of hepcidin (p<.05) than ferroportin. Western blot analysis of placental tissues revealed specific bands for both hepcidin (~8kDa) and ferroportin (~62kDa) molecules. Immunohistochemistry revealed the immunoreactivity for both proteins in the cytoplasm and membrane of trophoblastic cells of the placenta. Hepcidin and ferroportin expressions were positively associated with placental non-haem iron reserve (p<.0001; p=.033), lipid peroxidation (p=.0060; p<.0001) and reactive oxygen species level (p=.0092; p=.0292). Hepcidin expression was positively associated with interleukin - 6 (p=.0002) and interferon gamma (p<.0001) expressions but ferroportin expression was negatively associated with interleukin-6 (p=.0005), interleukin-1β (p=.0226) and interferon gamma (p=.0059) expressions. This indicates hepcidin and ferroportin may have a role in controlling the local placental iron flux by acting as a molecular bridge between iron trafficking and inflammation.

Iron metabolic pathways in the processes of sponge plasticity.

The ability to regulate oxygen consumption evolved in ancestral animals and is intrinsically linked to iron metabolism. The iron pathways have been intensively studied in mammals, whereas data on distant invertebrates are limited. Sea sponges represent the oldest animal phylum and have unique structural plasticity and capacity to reaggregate after complete dissociation. We studied iron metabolic factors and their expression during reaggregation in the White Sea cold-water sponges Halichondria panicea and Halisarca dujardini. De novo transcriptomes were assembled using RNA-Seq data, and evolutionary trends were analyzed with bioinformatic tools. Differential expression during reaggregation was studied for H. dujardini. Enzymes of the heme biosynthesis pathway and transport globins, neuroglobin (NGB) and androglobin (ADGB), were identified in sponges. The globins mutate at higher evolutionary rates than the heme synthesis enzymes. Highly conserved iron-regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) presumably interacts with the iron-responsive elements (IREs) found in mRNAs of ferritin (FTH1) and a putative transferrin receptor NAALAD2. The reaggregation process is accompanied by increased expression of IRP1, the antiapoptotic factor BCL2, the inflammation factor NFκB (p65), FTH1 and NGB, as well as by an increase in mitochondrial density. Our data indicate a complex mechanism of iron regulation in sponge structural plasticity and help to better understand general mechanisms of morphogenetic processes in multicellular species.

Regional iron distribution and soluble ferroprotein profiles in the healthy human brain

Iron is essential for brain development and health where its redox properties are used for a number of neurological processes. However, iron is also a major driver of oxidative stress if not properly controlled. Brain iron distribution is highly compartmentalised and regulated by a number of proteins and small biomolecules. Here, we examine heterogeneity in regional iron levels in 10 anatomical structures from seven post-mortem human brains with no apparent neuropathology. Putamen contained the highest levels, and most case-to-case variability, of iron compared with the other regions examined. Partitioning of iron between cytosolic and membrane-bound iron was generally consistent in each region, with a slightly higher proportion (55 %) in the ‘insoluble’ phase. We expand on this using the Allen Human Brain Atlas to examine patterns between iron levels and transcriptomic expression of iron regulatory proteins and using quantitative size exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry to assess regional differences in the molecular masses to which cytosolic iron predominantly binds. Approximately 60 % was associated with ferritin, equating to approximately 25 % of total tissue iron essentially in storage. This study is the first of its kind in human brain tissue, providing a valuable resource and new insight for iron biologists and neuroscientists, alike.

Linking Cancer Metabolic Dysfunction and Genetic Instability through the Lens of Iron Metabolism.

Iron (Fe) is an essential element that plays a fundamental role in a wide range of cellular functions, including cellular proliferation, DNA synthesis, as well as DNA damage and repair. Because of these connections, iron has been strongly implicated in cancer development. Cancer cells frequently have changes in the expression of iron regulatory proteins. For example, cancer cells frequently upregulate transferrin (increasing uptake of iron) and down regulate ferroportin (decreasing efflux of intracellular iron). These changes increase the steady-state level of intracellular redox active iron, known as the labile iron pool (LIP). The LIP typically contains approximately 2% intracellular iron, which primarily exists as ferrous iron (Fe2+). The LIP can readily contribute to oxidative distress within the cell through Fe2+-dioxygen and Fenton chemistries, generating the highly reactive hydroxyl radical (HO•). Due to the reactive nature of the LIP, it can contribute to increased DNA damage. Mitochondrial dysfunction in cancer cells results in increased steady-state levels of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide along with other downstream reactive oxygen species. The increased presence of H2O2 and O2•− can increase the LIP, contributing to increased mitochondrial uptake of iron as well as genetic instability. Thus, iron metabolism and labile iron pools may play a central role connecting the genetic mutational theories of cancer to the metabolic theories of cancer.

Renal iron accelerates the progression of diabetic nephropathy in the HFE gene knockout mouse model of iron overload.

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most common cause of end-stage renal disease associated with high mortality worldwide. Increases in iron levels have been reported in diabetic rat kidneys as well as in human urine of patients with diabetes. In addition, a low-iron diet or iron chelators delay the progression of DN in patients with diabetes and in animal models of diabetes. Possible maladaptive mechanisms of organ damage by tissue iron accumulation have not been well studied. We recently reported that iron induced the retinal renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and accelerated the progression of diabetic retinopathy. However, whether iron regulates the systemic RAS is unknown. To explore if iron alters the expression of intrarenal RAS and its role in the progression of DN, we used the high Fe iron (HFE) knockout mouse, a genetic model of systemic iron overload. We found that diabetes upregulated the expression of iron regulatory proteins and augmented tissue iron accumulation in the kidneys of both type 1 and type 2 diabetic mouse models. Iron accumulation in the kidneys of HFE knockout mice was associated with increase in serum and intrarenal renin expression. Induction of diabetes in HFE knockout mice using streptozotocin caused a much higher accumulation of renal iron and accelerated the progression of nephropathy compared with diabetic wild-type mice. Treatment of diabetic mice with the iron chelator deferiprone reversed the renin upregulation and reduced kidney injury. Thus, our results establish a new link between renal iron and RAS activity. Exploring the mechanisms of iron-induced RAS activation further may have a significant therapeutic impact on hypertension and DN.

Iron and the heart: A paradigm shift from systemic to cardiomyocyte abnormalities.

Iron is a key micronutrient for the human body and participates in biological processes, such as oxygen transport, storage, and utilization. Iron homeostasis plays a crucial role in the function of the heart and both iron deficiency and iron overload are harmful to the heart, which is partly mediated by increased oxidative stress. Iron enters the cardiomyocyte through the classic pathway, by binding to the transferrin 1 receptor (TfR1), but also through other routes: T-type calcium channel (TTCC), divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), L-type calcium channel (LTCC), Zrt-, Irt-like Proteins (ZIP) 8 and 14. Only one protein, ferroportin (FPN), extrudes iron from cardiomyocytes. Intracellular iron is utilized, stored bound to cytoplasmic ferritin or imported by mitochondria. This cardiomyocyte iron homeostasis is controlled by iron regulatory proteins (IRP). When the cellular iron level is low, expression of IRPs increases and they reduce expression of FPN, inhibiting iron efflux, reduce ferritin expression, inhibiting iron storage and augment expression of TfR1, increasing cellular iron availability. Such cellular iron homeostasis explains why the heart is very susceptible to iron overload: while cardiomyocytes possess redundant iron importing mechanisms, they are equipped with only one iron exporting protein, ferroportin. Furthermore, abnormalities of iron homeostasis have been found in heart failure and coronary artery disease, however, no clear picture is emerging yet in this area. If we better understand iron homeostasis in the cardiomyocyte, we may be able to develop better therapies for a variety of heart diseases to which abnormalities of iron homeostasis may contribute.

Expression of Iron Regulatory Proteins in Healthy and Osteoarthritic Chondrocytes

Iron dysregulation is a known risk factor in the progression of osteoarthritis and is a feature of comorbid syndromes Alzheimer's disease, insulin resistance, and age‐related macular degeneration. Little, however, is known about iron homeostasis in healthy chondrocytes or whether iron dysregulation occurs in osteoarthritis. To gain information on this matter, we performed surgical destabilization of the medial meniscus on the right knee of 8‐week‐old mice. An untreated sham group served as the control. We found and document for the first time that chondrocytes produce hepcidin, and that both hepcidin and ferroportin expression is downregulated in osteoarthritic cartilage to a statistically significant extent. We found, however, that there was no statistically significant change in ferritin expression in osteoarthritic vs. healthy chondrocytes. We submit that this data, in conjunction with observed iron metabolism trends in other tissues, suggests a role for iron dysregulation in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis.Support or Funding InformationOffice of Research and Creative Activities, Brigham Young UniversityThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Oxidative Stress Regulated Iron Regulatory Protein IRP2 Through FBXL5-Mediated Ubiquitination-Proteasome Way in SH-SY5Y Cells.

Iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) plays a key role in the cellular iron homeostasis and could be regulated by a variety of factors, such as oxidative stress, hypoxia and iron, etc. IRP2 depletion results in neurodegenerative movement disorder with the loss of neurons and accumulations of iron. Since oxidative stress extensively exists in several neurodegenerative diseases where iron accumulation also exists, it is important to clarify the mechanisms underlying the effects of oxidative stress on IRP2 expression and its consequence. 200 and 300 μM H2O2 could result in the reduced cell viability in SH-SY5Y cells. The intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were increased by 52.2 and 87.3% with 200 and 300 μM H2O2 treatments, respectively. The decreased levels of mitochondrial transmembrane potential (ΔΨm) were only observed in 300 μM H2O2-treated group. The protein levels of IRP2, but not for its mRNA levels, were observed decreased in both groups, which resulted in the lower TfR1 expression and decreased iron uptake in these cells. Pretreatment with MG132, the decreased IRP2 levels caused by H2O2 treatment could be antagonized. The protein levels of F box and leucine-rich repeat protein 5 (FBXL5), the only E3 ligase of IRP2, were observed decreased accordingly. When knockdown the intracellular FBXL5 levels by si-FBXL5, the protein levels of IRP2 were found increased with H2O2 treatment. Our results suggest that FBXL5 is involved in the degradation of IRP2 under oxidative stress in dopaminergic-like neuroblastoma cells, which implies that its role in the neuronal regulation of IRP2 in neurodegenerative diseases.