Objective: To evaluate the role of ChatGPT, an artificial intelligence (AI) model, in enhancing medical education by providing insights into pheochromocytoma which is a rare adrenal tumor. Methods: A conversational interaction with ChatGPT was conducted, focusing on clinical aspects of pheochromocytoma, including its definition, diagnosis, treatment options, and patient support groups. Results: ChatGPT successfully synthesized information on pheochromocytoma, including current guidelines, diagnostic methods, and treatment strategies, contributing to greater understanding. However, limitations such as lack of primary literature citations and variability in responses depending on input phrasing were noted. Conclusion: ChatGPT demonstrates potential as a supplementary educational tool in medicine, particularly for rare conditions like pheochromocytoma. Its outputs require expert validation prior to clinical use to ensure reliability.

The transition towards circular economy is now a key strategy to address the environmental issues we are facing. Within this framework, biochar, a carbon-rich material derived from residual agricultural pyrolysis, can represent a sustainable and circular solution. This paper aims at evaluating the possibility of implementing a local biochar-production system as part of an economic and social strategy of the redevelopment of an abandoned rural site, Borgo di Perolla, in Tuscany, Italy. A cost–benefits analysis (CBA) was conducted to evaluate the economic feasibility of three different scenarios of production and strategies: Scenario 1 considers revenues solely from the production and sale of biochar and wood vinegar; Scenario 2 additionally includes potential income from the sale of voluntary carbon credits; and Scenario 3 incorporates biochar credits within the European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS). For each scenario, three indicators were calculated: Net-Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR), and Breakeven point (BEP). The most evident result that emerged is that the sale of biochar and its by-products alone is not sufficient to ensure the project’s economic sustainability, mainly due to high production costs. Only through carbon-credit-trading markets biochar becomes not only an environmentally strategic tool but also an economically rewarding one. In this sense, market infrastructures, such as the ETS, are essential for the dissemination of circular models, like biochar, that generate both environmental and economic benefits. Previous studies on biochar have largely focused on its application and associated benefits, while cost–benefit analyses have primarily examined its economic feasibility through the commercialization of biochar as a soil amendment, particularly within the United States context. The present work contributes to this literature in three main ways. First, it provides a site-specific and replicable CBA framework applied to a real territorial regeneration project (Borgo di Perolla), grounded in primary data collected through field surveys, stakeholder interviews, and expert validation. Second, the study explicitly compares multiple market-access scenarios within the same analytical framework, ranging from biochar-only sales to voluntary carbon markets, allowing for a clear identification of the economic thresholds at which biochar becomes financially sustainable. Third, and most importantly, the main contribution of this work lies in the explicit modeling of biochar integration into the EU Emissions Trading System. This paper extends the analysis to a regulated carbon market scenario, assuming the recognition of biochar-based carbon removals within the EU ETS framework. From a methodological perspective, the study quantitatively assesses how ETS price dynamics affect the profitability, internal rate of return, and break-even point of a biochar project over a long-term horizon. From a policy perspective, the analysis anticipates recent regulatory developments, such as the EU Regulation 2024/3012, on establishing a Union certification framework for permanent carbon removals, carbon farming, and carbon storage in products, by showing how biochar could function as a fully market-integrated climate technology.

Introduction Sustainability in higher education requires attracting, retaining, and developing top faculty to maintain academic excellence and institutional resilience. This study investigates whether job engagement and job satisfaction mediate the relationship between talent management and employee performance in Chinese higher education institutions. Methods A cross-sectional, correlational quantitative survey was conducted. Validated scales were adapted for the Chinese higher-education context through expert validation, back to back translation, and pilot testing. Data were collected from 408 faculty members at public universities in Guangdong Province using convenience sampling. Descriptive statistics and reliability/validity assessments were performed in SPSS 29.0. Hypotheses were tested with PLS-SEM in SmartPLS 4.0. Results Talent management positively influences employee performance through two distinct mediating paths: (1) via increased job engagement and (2) via increased job satisfaction. The career development and performance management components of talent management had unique, significant effects on academic employees, reflecting the influence of teaching and research on career trajectories. Discussion Findings provide empirical support for dual mediation consistent with social exchange theory within Chinese higher education. Practical implications include aligning talent management practices (career development, performance management), clarifying job roles, and soliciting regular feedback to boost engagement and satisfaction, thereby improving faculty performance and institutional sustainability. Limitations include cross-sectional design and convenience sampling; future research should use longitudinal and broader sampling to confirm causal directions.

Mathematical communication skills and learning resilience are essential competencies for success in mathematics learning in the 21st century. However, Indonesian students still show low achievement in these aspects, as reflected in PISA results and classroom learning practices. This study aimed to develop and examine the effectiveness of Problem-Based Learning (PBL)-based teaching materials assisted by the Canva interactive web platform to improve students’ mathematical communication skills and learning resilience. This research employed a Research and Development (R&D) approach using the ADDIE model, which consists of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation stages. The study involved 60 tenth-grade students of MAN 4 Sukabumi, divided into an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group learned using PBL-based teaching materials assisted by Canva, while the control group received conventional instruction. The research instruments included expert validation sheets, student and teacher response questionnaires, a mathematical communication test consisting of four essay items, and a learning resilience scale with 30 statements. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and inferential statistical tests. The results showed that the developed teaching materials were categorized as very valid and highly practical. Students in the experimental group achieved higher mathematical communication scores and learning resilience compared to the control group, with moderate N-Gain improvements. Statistical analysis confirmed a significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.05). It can be concluded that PBL-based teaching materials assisted by the Canva interactive web platform are effective in improving students’ mathematical communication skills and learning resilience.

Problem solving and numeracy literacy are essential competencies in 21st-century mathematics education, as they require students to understand, apply, and interpret mathematical concepts in real-world contexts. However, school assessments remain predominantly procedural and have not comprehensively measured these competencies. This study aimed to develop a contextual essay-based test instrument grounded in ethnomathematics to assess senior high school students’ problem solving and numeracy literacy skills. This research employed a research and development (R&D) method, including needs analysis, test blueprint design, item development, expert validation, limited field testing, and item analysis using the Classical Test Theory approach supported by SPSS. The trial involved 28 twelfth-grade students of SMA Negeri 1 Ketapang. The results showed that the instrument demonstrated very high content validity (average 95.31%) and empirical validity, as student responses reflected the indicators of problem solving and numeracy literacy based on the analytic rubric. The reliability coefficients were very high, with Cronbach’s Alpha values of 0.907 for problem solving and 0.918 for numeracy literacy. All items were categorized as having moderate difficulty levels and good to very good discrimination indices. The novelty of this study lies in the simultaneous integration of Polya’s problem-solving stages and the PISA numeracy framework into an empirically validated assessment instrument based on local ethnomathematical contexts. This instrument provides a more contextual and authentic alternative for assessing higher-order thinking skills in mathematics.

This research is driven by the need to improve learning quality in higher education to be flexible, interactive, and with a student-centered approach in the digital era. This research aims is to design and evaluate English for Academic Purposes (EAP) reading materials integrated with Ethnopedagogy-Based Flipped Learning (FL) and the Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) model in a small group trial through an e-learning platform. Ethnopedagogy-based learning materials support the model in enhancing academic literacy for management students in higher education. It used the Research and Development (R&D) method which includes needs analysis, model design, learning tool development, validity and practicality evaluation. The results showed that the developed reading material and learning model are valid, practical, and relevant, as demonstrated by expert validation, instrument validity and reliability tests as part of small group trials. The e-learning-based FL–SRL integration produced a learning structure that aligns with the three phases of SRL, where forethought, performance, and self-reflection can facilitate active engagement, self-reflection, and independent learning for students. The novelty of this research is that it systematically integrates ethnopedagogy, FL and SRL into one integrated framework for developing EAP reading materials for management students. Overall, this development provides contribution in practical direction for students, educators and curriculum developers in designing learning experiences contextually and responsively for the student-centered challenges of 21st-century learning. It shows that there is strong potential when looking to integrate EAP reading material into the FL-SRL model to foster contextual and sustainable learning in higher education.

This study aims to develop ethnophotography-based Natural and Social Sciences (IPAS) teaching materials that are valid, practical, and effective in enhancing the cultural literacy of elementary school students. The development process employed a modified Borg & Gall R&D model through stages of needs analysis, data collection, product design, expert validation, revision, limited trials, and effectiveness testing. The research was conducted with teachers and fifth-grade students at Tegal Besar Public Elementary School, East Ogan Komering Ulu Regency. Data were obtained through observations, interviews, questionnaires, and documentation, and analyzed using descriptive quantitative and qualitative methods. The results show that the developed teaching materials achieved a high level of validity with an average expert score of 94.3%. They were also found to be highly practical based on positive responses from teachers and students. Effectiveness testing demonstrated improvement in students’ cultural literacy with an N-gain score of 0.82 (high category). The interactive digital format supports student engagement and strengthens understanding of the sociocultural context of their local environment. Therefore, the ethnophotography-based teaching materials are feasible for instructional use and contribute to contextual learning aligned with the Independent Curriculum.

Purpose: This study aimed to develop and evaluate an Augmented Reality (AR) marker based interactive picture story e-book designed to enhance early childhood mathematical abilities. Method: A Research and Development (R&D) approach was employed using the ADDIE model, encompassing the stages of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The study involved 28 children aged 5 6 years. The development process began with a needs analysis to identify gaps in existing instructional practices. The e-book incorporated key mathematical domains, including number concepts, patterns, geometry, measurement, and simple data representation, supported by AR visualization and interactive activities. Content validity was assessed by media, material, and early childhood mathematics experts. Practicality was examined through small and large group trials, while effectiveness was measured using a one-group pretest posttest design analyzed with the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and N-gain score calculation. Findings: The needs analysis revealed a high demand for interactive digital mathematics media (89.8%). Expert validation indicated high validity levels, and practicality testing demonstrated strong usability. Statistical analysis showed a significant improvement in children’s mathematical abilities (p < .05), with a high N-gain score (0.70). Significance: The findings suggest that AR integrated storytelling provides an effective and engaging approach to strengthening early mathematical competencies within technology-enhanced learning environments.

This study responds to the integration of digital technology in elementary education. General Background: Twenty-first-century learning requires interactive and student-centered instructional media supported by technology. Specific Background: In many elementary classrooms, learning media remain static, while puzzle-based learning and Augmented Reality (AR) platforms such as Assemblr EDU are often applied separately. Knowledge Gap: Research integrating puzzle-based problem-solving activities with AR technology into a single structured medium using Assemblr EDU at the elementary level remains limited. Aims: This study aims to develop and evaluate the feasibility of an Assemblr EDU–based augmented reality puzzle learning media using the ADDIE Research and Development model. Results: Expert validation showed material suitability (87%), visual design (83%), AR interaction (85%), and ease of use (82%), with an overall feasibility score of 84.25% categorized as appropriate to very appropriate. Student responses were highly positive in attractiveness (90%), usability (85%), conceptual support (88%), and thinking activation (87%). Novelty: The study integrates structured puzzle activities with AR visualization within one interactive instructional product. Implications: The developed media demonstrates pedagogical relevance and provides a viable technology-based alternative for elementary learning aligned with 21st-century education principles. Highlights• Achieved high validation scores across content, design, interaction, and usability criteria.• Generated strong learner approval in attractiveness, clarity, and cognitive activation aspects.• Combined structured game mechanics with three-dimensional visualization in one instructional product. KeywordsAugmented Reality; Assemblr EDU; Puzzle Based Learning; Elementary Education; Instructional Media Development

This study used the RnD (Research and Development) research method that refers to the ADDIE development model. The study was conducted at SDN Ngrukeman with limited trial subjects of 8 second-grade students and field trial subjects of 19 second-grade students. Data collection instruments used were observation, interviews, questionnaires, and tests. Data analysis techniques used qualitative and descriptive quantitative data analysis. The results of this study produced a product in the form of interactive animated video learning media to improve students' digital literacy skills. The feasibility results were obtained from the validation of media experts and material experts who obtained different results, namely media experts got 90.6% and material experts got a percentage of 89.3% in the very feasible category. Media practicality data was obtained from the results of the teacher response questionnaire with a percentage of 96% and a student response questionnaire of 91.05% including the very practical category. Media effectiveness test data was obtained from the results of the pretest and posttest which obtained an average pretest score of 56.2% with a low category and a posttest of 85.1% in the very good category, there was an increase between the pretest and posttest results of 28.9% which means the media can improve students' digital literacy skills. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that interactive learning media based on animated videos is very feasible, practical and effective for use in learning.

This study employed a Research and Development (R&D) approach aimed at producing a valid and practical Problem Based Learning (PBL) model oriented toward Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) for Grade V IPAS subjects in elementary schools. The research was conducted at SDN Gugus 1 Aikmel, involving subject matter experts, learning model experts, Grade V teachers, and Grade V students of SDN 02 Aikmel and SDN 03 Aikmel. The development model used was the 4D model, consisting of define, design, develop, and disseminate stages. Data collection instruments included expert validation sheets and response questionnaires from teachers and students. Data were analyzed using quantitative descriptive analysis. The validation results showed that the learning model expert assessment reached 85.71%, while the subject matter expert assessment reached 91.6%, both categorized as very valid. Practicality testing in the small-group trial obtained a percentage of 92.5%, and in the large-group trial 95%, both categorized as very practical. These findings indicate that the developed learning model is easy for teachers to implement, engaging for students, and supports contextual IPAS learning. Therefore, the STEM-oriented PBL model is considered valid and practical for use in Grade V elementary IPAS learning.

This research aims to develop a web-based trigonometry learning medium using a mindful learning approach for Grade X students at SMK Hang Tuah Kediri. The study analyzes the feasibility, practicality, and effectiveness of the medium in supporting student learning outcomes. The method employed is Research and Development (R&D), adapting the ADDIE model. The research stages include needs analysis, design, product development, expert validation, and field testing with 17 Grade X students. Validation results showed a very high level of validity with a Gregory coefficient of 1.00. The medium was declared feasible without substantial revision as the material structure aligns with the Learning Path Objectives at SMK Hang Tuah Kediri. The depth of the material was considered highly relevant to basic competency indicators, achieving a perfect score in both content and construction aspects. In terms of practicality, student and teacher responses reached an average of 91.82%, categorized as highly practical. Meanwhile, the effectiveness of the medium, based on learning evaluation results, showed an average N-Gain value of 49.41%. This value falls within the 40–59% range, categorized as moderately effective. Pedagogically, this achievement indicates that the medium is capable of facilitating the transition of students' understanding of trigonometric concepts from basic to complex levels, although teacher guidance remains necessary for optimal results.

This study addresses the lack of specialized diagnostic instruments capable of pinpointing specific cognitive failures in physics data literacy, particularly within Thermodynamics. To bridge this gap, a Distractor-Based Cognitive Diagnostic Test (DB-CDT) was developed and validated for eleventh-grade high school students in Yogyakarta. Utilizing a Research and Development (R&D) approach with the ADDIE framework, the instrument was built upon the DINA (Deterministic Input, Noisy-AND Gate) cognitive diagnostic model. Expert validation by three specialists yielded an excellent average V-Aiken value of 1.00. Empirical testing on a sample of 540 students across high, medium, and low-tier schools confirmed high psychometric quality: an average INFIT MNSQ of 1.00 (within the 0.77–1.30 range), item difficulty between -2 and +2, and high reliability (0.92). DB-CDT distinguishes itself by using a Q-Matrix to link specific distractors to cognitive errors, such as failures in sign conversion or process interpretation. Analysis of student profiles revealed that the experimental group—utilizing targeted diagnostic feedback—achieved superior mastery in analyzing (96.6%) and interpreting data (90%), whereas the control group, receiving conventional assessment, struggled significantly with inference and synthesis. Theoretically, this research advances the application of Cognitive Diagnostic Models in physics education. Practically, it provides educators with a sensitive tool to profile individual student weaknesses, allowing for more focused instructional interventions in complex scientific topics.

Many elementary students are able to decode written text fluently but struggle to construct coherent narratives with clear sequencing and causal relationships. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a culturally grounded non-text picture storybook to enhance narrative structuring skills among elementary school students. The research employed a Research and Development (R&D) design using the Plomp model, consisting of preliminary investigation, design, realization, testing, and implementation phases. The product was developed based on Cirebon’s coastal ethnoscience and tested through a limited trial involving 30 second-grade students, followed by broader implementation with 200 students from ten public elementary schools in Cirebon City, Indonesia. Data were collected through expert validation, practicality questionnaires, pre-test and post-test assessments, and classroom observations. The results indicated that the storybook met high validity standards in terms of content (4.2), media design (4.0), and language (4.0). Practicality ratings from teachers (4.7) and students (4.1) showed positive user responses. Quantitative findings revealed a significant improvement in students’ narrative structuring skills, with a large effect size. The study concludes that integrating visual scaffolding with culturally relevant content effectively strengthens students’ ability to organize and express narratives. This research contributes to visual literacy development and culturally responsive pedagogy in elementary education.

This study developed RESPIRA (Respiratory Education System with Process, Interactivity, and Animation), a Canva-based learning media designed to improve fifth-grade students' attention and understanding of the human respiratory system—a challenging topic due to its abstract and complex nature. Using the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation), the research was conducted at SDN Sumberbendo, Lamongan Regency. Data were collected through expert validation sheets, teacher and student response questionnaires, attention surveys, and pretest-posttest assessments. Descriptive analysis, N-Gain calculations, and Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test were employed to evaluate validity, practicality, and effectiveness. Results indicated high validity (94.4%), excellent practicality ratings from teachers (97.33%) and students (95.76%), and significant effectiveness improvements. Student attention increased from 70.29% (high) to 89.67% (very high), while learning outcomes showed an average N-Gain of 0.71 (high category). The Wilcoxon test revealed significant differences between pretest and posttest scores (p < 0.001). RESPIRA media proved valid, practical, and effective for elementary science education, successfully enhancing attention and conceptual understanding through interactive, engaging, and contextually appropriate learning experiences aligned with student characteristics.

Purpose: Critical thinking is widely recognized as a core competency for 21st-century learners; however, assessment practices in schools continue to prioritize cognitive outcomes through conventional testing methods. As a result, non-cognitive aspects of critical thinking, particularly critical thinking dispositions, remain insufficiently assessed. This study aims to develop and validate authentic assessment instruments that holistically measure students’ non-cognitive critical thinking skills. The instruments were designed to capture dispositional dimensions of critical thinking through a combination of an authentic assessment scale, reflective journals, and discussion observation sheets. Method: This study employed a research and development (R&D) approach using the 4D model consisting of Define, Design, Develop, and Disseminate stages. The development process involved needs analysis, instrument design, expert validation, and limited field testing. Participants included nine expert lecturers, six junior high school mathematics teachers, and one class of junior high school students, selected purposively. Content validity was examined using Aiken’s V, while internal consistency reliability was assessed using Hoyt’s formula. Instrument readability and practicality were evaluated through structured response questionnaires administered to teachers and students, with data analyzed descriptively using percentage scores. Findings: The results indicate that all instruments demonstrated high content validity and strong reliability, with coefficients of 0.834 for the authentic instrument, 0.901 for the reflective journal, and 0.879 for the observation sheet. Readability analysis confirmed suitability for junior high school students. Teacher responses were very high (87.4%–91.3%), and student responses were positive (83.07%–85.5%), indicating good usability and relevance. Significance: This study provides empirically validated authentic assessment instruments that support holistic evaluation of non-cognitive critical thinking skills, offering a meaningful alternative to conventional assessment practices and contributing to the advancement of formative, disposition oriented assessment in contemporary education.

This study assessed the competency needs of secondary school teachers in the Lopez West District, Division of Quezon, using the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST) as the guiding professional standards framework and an input–process–output logic for translating results into a proposed Teacher Enhancement Program. The research employed descriptive-survey, descriptive-evaluative, and descriptive-comparative approaches across nine secondary schools. From a population of 304 teachers, 121 respondents were selected through stratified random sampling (Slovin’s formula, 7% margin of error). Data were gathered using a PPST-based checklist with a two-part format (demographic profile and seven PPST domains) rated on a 4-point competency scale; the instrument underwent expert validation. Analyses included percentages, weighted arithmetic means, tests of homogeneity and normality, and nonparametric group comparisons using Mann–Whitney U and Kruskal–Wallis H tests. Findings showed respondents were predominantly female and early-career, largely baccalaureate degree holders, and mostly married. Overall competency across all seven PPST domains was rated Competent, with relatively higher ratings in Diversity of Learners and Content Knowledge and Pedagogy, and comparatively lower ratings in Personal Growth and Professional Development, Community Linkages and Professional Engagement, and Learning Environment. No significant differences in competency needs were found by sex, while significant differences emerged when grouped by age, civil status, educational qualification, and length of service. Based on lower-rated indicators across domains, a Teacher Enhancement Program was developed to address prioritized competency needs through targeted professional learning and school-level support mechanisms. This study aligns with SDG 4 (Quality Education) and supports SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) through standards-based teacher upskilling and strengthened professional practice. Its sustainability impact lies in promoting an institutionalized, evidence-informed professional development system that improves instructional quality, inclusive practice, and stakeholder engagement over time.

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and adolescent malnutrition remain significant public health challenges, particularly among school-aged populations. Unhealthy snacking behaviors, combined with limited science literacy, reduce adolescents’ ability to make informed dietary decisions, underscoring the urgent need for effective, school-based educational interventions. This study aimed to develop and assess the effectiveness of a Smart Snack Strategy e-module that integrates peer education and problem-based learning (PBL) to enhance science literacy. The research used a Research and Development (R&D) approach with the ADDIE model, comprising needs analysis through health screening and stakeholder consultation, followed by design, development, expert validation, and product trials. The e-module covers three main topics: the smart snack concept, basic food microbiology, and food label reading. Validation by content, language, media, and learning experts confirmed that the module is highly feasible in terms of quality and usability. Subsequent limited and broader trials with 25 students demonstrated a significant improvement in science literacy, with an average gain of 30.92 points (p < 0.05). The e-module also fostered greater motivation, problem-solving skills, and healthier snack decision-making. These findings indicate that integrating peer education and PBL is effective in promoting active learning and healthy lifestyle behaviors. Therefore, the Smart Snack Strategy e-module represents a viable and innovative medium for enhancing science literacy and supporting adolescent health promotion in school settings.

This research aims to develop a valid and practical Islamic science-based biology learning module to enhance faith and piety (iman and taqwa) of grade XI students at SMA Negeri 7 Bengkulu City. The research method used Research and Development with the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation). Research subjects included 4 expert validators for validity testing and 35 students for practicality testing. Data analysis techniques used descriptive percentage analysis. The results showed that the Islamic science-based biology learning module was declared very valid with an average percentage of 84% and very practical with a percentage of 88%. Student responses to the improvement of faith and piety reached 89% in the very good category. The conclusion of this research is that the Islamic science-based biology learning module is feasible and practical to use in reproductive system learning to enhance students' faith and piety. Keywords: Biology, Faith, Islamic Science, Learning Module, Piety

This study addresses the persistent challenge of low critical thinking skills and inadequate conceptual understanding among junior high school students in science, particularly concerning ecology and biodiversity topics that require contextual relevance. The core gap identified is the lack of integration of contextually relevant and visually engaging teaching materials to support the development of these competencies. The research aimed to develop, validate, and evaluate the effectiveness of infographic-based learning media that integrates local environmental issues to enhance these two competencies in Grade VII students. Employing a Research and Development (R&D) approach, the study utilized the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation) to systematically design and test the learning product. The implementation phase used a One-Group Pre-test–Post-test Design involving 17 students from a public junior high school located in Gorontalo Regency, Gorontalo Province. The developed media achieved an average expert validation score of 93.74% (Very Valid Category), confirming its quality. Effectiveness analysis using the Normalized Gain (N-Gain) score demonstrated significant improvement in student outcomes: the N-Gain for critical thinking was 0.72 (High Category), and for conceptual understanding, it was 0.77 (High Category). Furthermore, the media was highly practical, with student responses showing an overwhelming 98.1% positive feedback. Given the demonstrated high levels of validity, practicality, and effectiveness, the use of infographic-based learning media that connects abstract scientific concepts with local environmental contexts is proven to be a robust resource for fostering students' critical thinking skills and conceptual mastery in biology education.