Experiences Of Indigenous Peoples Research Articles

The Importance of Using Movies in EFL Classrooms

This study explores the profound impact of climate change on the indigenous communities of Northern Canada, with a focus on how rapidly changing environmental conditions are altering traditional lifestyles, health outcomes, and socio-economic structures. Indigenous populations, particularly those residing in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, are experiencing heightened vulnerability due to the interconnection between their cultural practices and the natural environment. The paper examines the direct and indirect effects of climate change, including shifts in ice cover, wildlife migration patterns, and extreme weather events, and analyzes how these changes disrupt hunting, fishing, and community cohesion. Additionally, the research delves into the broader implications for indigenous health, including mental health challenges and the exacerbation of pre-existing conditions. By considering both the scientific data and the lived experiences of Indigenous peoples, this study underscores the urgent need for tailored climate adaptation strategies that respect indigenous knowledge systems and promote resilience in these communities. The findings emphasize the importance of inclusive, culturally sensitive approaches to policy-making in order to mitigate the negative effects of climate change and ensure the preservation of Indigenous ways of life.

"We're Going to Start Healing": Perceptions of Sexual Violence on a Rural Indian Reservation in the Northern Great Plains.

Indigenous people experience disproportionally higher rates of sexual violence, but we know little about how to prevent sexual violence among this population. The purpose of this study was to understand the perspectives (e.g., causes, prevention) of sexual violence among an Indigenous community residing on a large rural Indian Reservation in the Northern Great Plains. The study conducted seven focus groups with adults, high school students, and middle school students, and a thematic analysis approach was used to assess the gestalt of the data. Three primary themes emerged from the data: (a) causes of sexual violence, (b) characteristics and contexts of sexual violence, and (c) prevention of sexual violence. Specifically, Indigenous relatives desired sexual violence education; however, there was agreement that there is a lack of programming or education from schools and community organizations. Notably, adults focused on how colonization affected the attitudes and behaviors related to sexual violence and the importance of empowering youth. Adolescent boys believed that the general acceptance of physical violence and bullying in their community led to a culture of ambivalence and distrust of sexual assault disclosures. Adolescent girls referenced how gender and social norms that subjugate women/girls have led to rape myth acceptance and victim-blaming. Findings highlight the need for empowerment-based, culturally grounded, gender transformative prevention programs to address the social biases and gender norms that contribute to sexual violence while promoting cultural strengths and community among youth. This research has important implications for informing sexual violence prevention programming across Indian country.

“They talk about it like it's an overdose crisis when in fact it's basically genocide”: The experiences of Indigenous peoples who use illicit drugs in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside neighbourhood

Indigenous Peoples who use illicit drugs (IPWUID) are disproportionately represented among toxic drug poisoning deaths in Canada. These drug-related harms are framed by the historical and ongoing trauma related to settler colonialism and are acutely visible in Vancouver, Canada's Downtown Eastside - a low-income neighbourhood that is an epicenter of the drug poisoning crisis and characterized by entrenched poverty, substance use, violence, and homelessness. This study was undertaken to examine the experiences and perspectives of IPWUID in the Downtown Eastside regarding the drug poisoning crisis and the responsiveness of harm reduction programs within the context of settler colonialism. Indigenous-led qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 IPWUID recruited by Indigenous peer researchers. Indigenous ways of knowing were embedded throughout the entire research design to ensure research was culturally congruent. Interview transcripts were analyzed thematically and interpreted by drawing on concepts of social violence and racial capitalism. Our analysis reviewed three key themes that centered the experiences of IPWUID in Vancouver's Downtown Eastside in relation to the drug poisoning crisis: (1) that the drug poisoning crisis is understood as a form of genocide toward Indigenous Peoples; (2) that the crisis is experienced within the context of pervasive distrust and adversarial relationships with police rooted in structurally racist experiences of place-based policing practices; and (3) that there is a desire for culturally-safe harm reduction care with Indigenous representation, cultural integration, and that addresses inequities and injustice stemming from colonialism and structural racism. Findings demonstrate how responses to the drug poisoning crisis among IPWUID need to respond to social and materials conditions perpetuated by colonialism and racial capitalism, while also centering IPWUID through the development and implementation of Indigenous-led and culturally safe harm reduction approaches.

Sacred Sharing Circles: Urban Indigenous Experience with Bariatric Surgery in Manitoba.

Obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2DM) are growing global health concerns. A disproportionate number of Indigenous Peoples live with obesity and its complications. Bariatric surgery offers superior weight loss and comorbidity resolution when compared to medical management. There is a paucity of literature regarding the experiences of Indigenous Peoples undergoing bariatric surgery. The aim of this study was to employ two-eyed seeing and a decolonizing approach to explore the experiences of urban Indigenous bariatric surgery patients. An Indigenous Advisory Committee guided the conception and design of the study. Four urban Indigenous bariatric surgery patients with T2DM participated in two sequential sharing circles and individual interviews facilitated by an Elder. Audio transcripts were analyzed for emerging themes using inductive thematic analysis. Themes generated from shared participant experiences and knowledge included the following: (1) Experiencing hardship or challenges; (2) Reflecting on the importance of supports; (3) Understanding relationships with food; and (4) Healing and recovery. Overall, the participants described a generally positive experience with the bariatric pathway. Participants also described varied connectedness to their Indigenous identity but uniformly expressed interest in more culturally diverse supports such as sharing circles, access to an elder, and Indigenous peer mentorship. Indigenous Peoples have strong motivators for pursuing bariatric surgery and desire access to culturally relevant supports. Suggestions for program improvement included offering sharing circles, providing access to an elder, and Indigenous peer mentorship. This study is the first to qualitatively explore the bariatric surgery experiences of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.

Cultural context and sentencing: content analysis of sentencing remarks for Indigenous defendants of domestic violence in the Northern Territory, Australia

ABSTRACT The focal concerns perspective was developed to understand differential sentencing outcomes for minority defendants in the United States. Although the focal concerns perspective dominates empirical sentencing research, its application in Australia has limitations in understanding sentencing disparities of Indigenous defendants, especially around cultural and customary contexts. In Australia, this limitation is exasperated by jurisdictional nuances and that certain sentencing – like for domestic violence – requires consideration of cultural factors. Using content analysis, we examined the extent to which cultural and customary contexts were acknowledged within the sentencing remarks of 72 Indigenous spousal domestic violence defendants sentenced in the Northern Territory Supreme Court between April 2015 to April 2016. We found limited acknowledgement of culture and customary practices for Indigenous defendants. Around a third of transcripts referred to Indigenous cultural factors. When cultural factors were identified, the impacts on sentencing were absent, superficial, or applied in a way to remove cultural meaning. Consequently, there was little evidence that sentencing courts adequately accounted for the unique experiences of Indigenous people. This can further marginalise Indigenous people, decrease the capacity for healing and rehabilitation at sentencing, and increase sentencing disparities. We consider plausible strategies for judicial decision-making processes that ensure cultural and customary contexts.

Ethnic disparities in mental health problems in New Caledonia and French Polynesia.

Indigenous people experience poorer mental health compared to the general population. Socioeconomic gaps partly explain these disparities. However, there is variability between populations and French overseas territories are understudied. This study examines the prevalence of mental health problems among Indigenous people in New Caledonia and French Polynesia, describing and comparing it with that of their counterparts while considering associated factors. We used the data from the cross-sectional Mental Health in the General Population survey in the only 3 sites for which information on indigenous status was available: Noumea (2006) and the 'Bush' (2008) in New Caledonia, and French Polynesia (2015-2017). Current mental health issues were screened using the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview. In multivariable analyses, we considered the following factors: gender, age, education level, marital status, occupational activity and monthly income. Overall, 2294 participants were analysed. Among the 1379 indigenous participants, 52.3% had at least one mental health issue. The prevalence of depressive disorder (18.0% vs 11.7%), alcohol use disorder (16.7% vs 11.7%) and suicide risk (22.3% vs 16.7%) were higher among indigenous participants compared to non-indigenous participants. After adjustment, the association between indigenous status and these mental health issues did not persist, except for alcohol use disorder. We found higher prevalence of depressive disorder, alcohol use disorder and suicide risk among indigenous people of French Polynesia and New Caledonia compared to their counterparts. These differences seemed largely explained by socioeconomic disparities. Future studies could explore the use of and access to healthcare by indigenous populations.

Settlement Disputes in Banceuy Traditional Village: Perspective of Customary Law and Islamic Law

In the realm of marriage, the indigenous community residing in the Banceuy Traditional Village still conducts Sundanese traditional ceremonies, despite marriages being conducted under Islamic law.There are times when the married life of these indigenous people experiences prolonged disputes. This research aims to examine the settlement of marital disputes in the Banceuy traditional village from the perspective of customary law and Islamic law. The approach method used in this research is normative juridical research. The research specifications used are descriptive analytical, namely by providing data or a description as accurately as possible regarding the object of the problem. Based on the research, it is concluded that the dispute resolution that is often adopted in the community order of Banceuy Traditional Village is known as babadan tenan. Dispute resolution by babadan tenan, in which the parties to the dispute will appoint traditional elders and/or hamlet heads to mediate disputes in a marriage relationship in the customary jurisdiction of Banceuy Traditional Village. Of course, this peaceful dispute resolution is known in Islamic law because Islamic law teaches the use of peacemakers similar to the practice of mediation in the Indonesian legal system.

The opportunity of struggle: a case study on developing a Māori-centric nursing course

PurposeThis paper delves into the enduring influence of Linda Tuhiwai Smith’s groundbreaking work, “Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples,” while examining how the concept of “struggle” has facilitated Māori-centric nursing education.Design/methodology/approachUtilizing a case study approach, a collaboration between Māori and non-Māori nursing academics describes the development of two Māori-centric postgraduate courses. This approach allows for an exploration of the contextual factors surrounding sites of “struggle” in course development and efforts towards decolonization and indigenization.FindingsThe evaluation of a Māori-centric postgraduate course is guided by Smith’s five key conditions for “struggle”. By illustrating the dynamic and intersecting nature of these conditions, the study reveals how various interests, tensions and relationships intersect within academia. We further show how the team actively sought viable solutions to strengthen the Maori nursing workforce and those nurses serving Maori communities through the development of tailored courses.Originality/valueThis case study offers a unique perspective on the tensions inherent in the struggles faced by Māori women and their allies, who utilize cultural frameworks as sites of resistance within Western institutions. We highlight how education can carve out new spaces for Māori within their cultural context and the broader academic sphere. Inspired by Smith’s work, this dialogue transcends academic boundaries, echoing the values, knowledge and experiences of Indigenous peoples marginalized by colonialism.

Paramedicine research with family and bystanders: A methodological review

The evolving nature of paramedic care has resulted in a growing body of evidence considering service user experience, including the experiences of patients, family members and bystanders. As new areas of research enquiry emerge in paramedicine, it is important to review the methods, methodologies, and quality of evidence in these topic areas. A methodological review was conducted of peer-reviewed empirical studies reporting on family and bystander experiences where emergency ambulance services responded. Descriptive statistics were calculated to describe select study characteristics. Study quality was appraised using the Johanna Briggs Institute Checklist for Qualitative Research and the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool. Service user engagement was evaluated using a newly adapted tool, the Service User Engagement Ladder. After searching five databases, 37 studies of varying research designs were included in this review. While overall study quality was high, there was a notable absence of theoretical discussion, particularly regarding qualitative methodologies. In assessing service user engagement, family and bystanders had very low levels of engagement in the research process. Only one study in this review utilised methods where co-construction of research occurred. Current research is dominated by Western study locations and biomedical paradigms that privilege Westernised populations and ways of considering experience, ignoring the preferences and experiences of Indigenous people and people from minoritised ethnic groups. To further develop paramedicine research involving family and bystanders, transparent reporting around the theoretical underpinnings of research must be strengthened. There is a significant opportunity to increase service user engagement in the research process. Greater attention to cultural and ethnic diversity is needed in researching family and bystander experiences.

Indigenous people's experiences of primary health care in Canada: a qualitative systematic review.

Indigenous people in Canada encounter negative treatment when accessing primary health care (PHC). Despite several qualitative accounts of these experiences, there still has not been a qualitative review conducted on this topic. In this qualitative systematic review, we aimed to explore Indigenous people's experiences in Canada with PHC services, determine urban versus rural or remote differences and identify recommendations for quality improvement. This review was guided by the Joanna Briggs Institute's methodology for systematic reviews of qualitative evidence. MEDLINE, CINAHL, PubMed, PsycInfo, Embase and Web of Science as well as grey literature and ancestry sources were used to identify relevant articles. Ancestry sources were obtained through reviewing the reference lists of all included articles and determining the ones that potentially met the eligibility criteria. Two independent reviewers conducted the initial and full text screening, data extraction and quality assessment. Once all data were gathered, they were synthesized following the meta-aggregation approach (PROSPERO CRD42020192353). The search yielded a total of 2503 articles from the academic databases and 12 articles from the grey literature and ancestry sources. Overall, 22 articles were included in this review. Three major synthesized findings were revealed-satisfactory experiences, discriminatory attitudes and systemic challenges faced by Indigenous patients-along with one synthesized finding on their specific recommendations. Indigenous people value safe, accessible and respectful care. The discrimination and racism they face negatively affect their overall health and well-being. Hence, it is crucial that changes in health care practice, structures and policy development as well as systemic transformation be implemented immediately.

Haunted Monasteries: Troubling Indigenous Erasure in Early Colonial Mexican Architecture

This essay examines the placement and displacement of Nahua labor in the architectural history of Mexico’s early colonial monasteries. It takes as its point of departure the story of a ghost in the Tlaxcala monastery as told by a Franciscan missionary to analyze the discursive and spatial dimensions of emergent racial ideologies in Mexico’s earliest Catholic missions. While the ghost’s appearance signals the eruption of unresolved tensions between the missionaries and the Tlaxcalans in a cohabited religious complex, the specter also animates settler colonial domination. Cross-referencing Nahuatl and Franciscan documents reveal the ghost story as a whitewashed tale of monastic ritual life wherein the ghost effaces Indigenous labor at precisely the moments and places missionaries deemed it most threatening. In so doing, this study illuminates how racial ideologies were structured discursively and experientially at the missions and contributes to urgent debates about how the history and preservation of Catholic architecture in Mexico conceals and represses the lived experience of Indigenous peoples.

Skookum Health

This article presents findings of a collaborative, community-based project that established partnerships between researchers at Simon Fraser University and Indigenous community members and organizations in Surrey, British Columbia. In Metro Vancouver, Surrey saw the biggest increase in its Indigenous population, which grew 77 per cent between 2006 and 2016 to 13,460. This was a timely project given that community research partners were interested in focusing on health issues and that traditional health and social service models geared towards Indigenous populations tend to focus on on-reserve populations. Research objectives included: 1) to identify the health needs and priorities of Indigenous peoples in Surrey; 2) to determine what methodologies should be used when researching culture and health; and 3) to explore how existing data connected to Surrey’s Indigenous population can be accessed to better align research priorities with the health status of Indigenous peoples in Surrey. Data was gathered through two community talking circles (n=30) and one-to-one interviews with health and social service providers (n=12). Findings from the project included: the importance of culturally safe care and support in health and social service systems; the need for training and education among health and social service providers on the history and contemporary experiences of Indigenous peoples; and the importance of having access to Elder-led cultural teachings and land-based activities that support health and wellbeing of families and communities.

Undergraduate Nursing Student Reflections on Indigenous Peoples' Experiences With the Canadian Health Care System.

The aim of this study was to analyze nursing student level of knowledge and understanding of current experiences of Indigenous people within the Canadian health care system to identify curricular gaps that need to be addressed. In response to the 2015 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, nursing schools have begun incorporating Indigenous health content into curricula. However, few studies about the implementation and effectiveness of this education exist. Students wrote a reflection and engaged with colleagues' reflections after watching a video from the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network. Fifteen reflections were selected using systematic, random sampling to undergo thematic analysis. Two themes were identified: 1) students' understanding of barriers Indigenous populations face when accessing the health care system and 2) students' perceptions of strategies to ensure culturally safe care for Indigenous populations. Analysis of students' learning through a reflection activity can improve the Indigenous health content curriculum.

Toward decolonial community psychologies from Abya Yala.

The epistemologies generated from colonized spaces such as Latin America and the Caribbean have been excluded from the dominant Euro- and US-centric discourses of community psychology. Modern science is compartmentalized into disciplines forming silos and boundaries among them. Historically, psychology has been authored by European or North American White men, claiming superior expertise as detached researchers who study, analyze, interpret, and represent the inferior objects of study. Therefore, we should ask: what type of knowledges does psychology generate, with whom, and for what? Our praxis constitutes a political act which should question and challenge coloniality. In Latin America and the Caribbean, we became increasingly aware of the importance of generating knowledges about the communal (lo común)based on the experiences of Indigenous people in the Americas. Epistemologies from Abya Yala delink from the hegemonic, US-Eurocentric paradigms and address the structural violence of the neoliberal system. To co-create an inclusive and pluriversal discipline of psychology, we need to disrupt the linguistic colonization executed by the imposition of the English language legitimized as universal. We ought to convey the many examples of epistemologies and praxes from Abya Yala that contribute to the co-construction of decolonial psychologies emerging from their own localities and cultures. We propose counterepistemologies that disrupt a monocultural, monolingustic, universal, and hegemonic epistemology. This paper reviews selected decolonial contributions from Abya Yala and sketches pathways toward the making of decolonial community psychologies anchored in pluriversal ecologies of knowledges.

“Here” Collaborative Governance: Tourism Development Model of the Baduy Indigenous People in Indonesia

Background: Several studies examine the development of indigenous cultural tourism. The number of tourists who visit every year makes the Baduy indigenous people experience cultural degradation. This research topic is important for the sustainability of the culture of indigenous peoples. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze the orientation of the cultural values of the Baduy people and reconstruct the collaborative governance model based on the cultural values of the indigenous peoples. Collaborative governance in the development of indigenous peoples' tourism cannot be separated from the dimensions of cultural values. Method: Research informants consist of village heads (Jaro pamarentah), traditional leaders (Jaro tangtu), Baduy indigenous people, and all stakeholders involved including government, private sector, academics, community organizations, and mass media. The research uses a qualitative approach whose data is processed using Atlas.ti software version 9. Results: The cultural value orientation of the Baduy indigenous people is oriented towards nature conservation, preparing for future life, not discriminating against social class, and living together. All results of the orientation of cultural values are identified into several dimensions of cultural values, namely, Harmony (H), Egalitarianism (E), Readiness (R), and Embeddedness (E) or researchers call it cultural values "HERE" which is then used to reconstruct the collaborative governance model. Conclusion: This study contributes to the development of indigenous peoples' tourism through collaborative governance efforts based on HERE cultural values.

Lived Experiences of Indigenous People’s Education (IPED) Teachers in Integrating the IPED Curriculum

The IPEd Program aims to provide marginalized ethnic groups with an inclusive curriculum that respects their cultural identity. Department of Education recognizes that access to culture-responsive primary education is a crucial issue that needs to be addressed among Indigenous Peoples, given its significance in achieving the country's Education for All (EFA) targets. This study was conducted to determine the lived experiences of IPED teachers in integrating the IPED curriculum. Participants were assigned from different IPED-implementing schools in the Division of Misamis Occidental. They were selected through purposive sampling. Face-to-face interviews were conducted to gather the data from the participants. The study employed a qualitative research design, and the researcher used the transcendental phenomenological approach. Responses were analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s thematic method of data analysis. Findings revealed that IPED teachers faced various challenges in integrating the IPED curriculum, including additional workload, difficulty in Subanen Orthography, limited IPED instructional materials, and disinterest in the Indigenous Program. The participants also gained meaningful opportunities to become IPED teachers, such as understanding the Subanen culture and receiving awards and recognition as IPED teachers. To cope with the mentioned challenges, IPED teachers had to seek assistance from I.P. leaders in the community, attend IPEd seminars and workshops, and observe flexibility and open-mindedness. These suggest that addressing the workload, cascading intensive Subanen Orthography workshop, supplying adequate IPED instructional materials and teaching resources, boosting IPED learners' interests, and increasing I.P. community involvement are essential steps toward improving the educational experience for both teachers and students.

Mnemonic Communities of Displaced Indigenous People: Northeast Indian Narratives of Cultural Memory

The displaced indigenous people in Northeast India belong to multiple ethnic groups scattered across the region. Most communities have a shared traumatic experience as the base of their collective remembering. Even though their relocation trauma resonates with others among the displaced, it does not surpass their strong ethnic predilection. Social processes of remembering to establish the community by drawing and redrawing the boundaries of different periods or eras in its historical trajectory. Cultural memory plays a significant role in revisiting and reforming the historical trajectory, especially in a space where cultural artefacts possess strong roots. Contemporary literature from the Northeast traces the trajectory of its history with the help of the available knowledge system and the lived-through experiences of ordinary Indigenous people. The study focuses on Easterine Kire’s A Respectable Woman (2019) and Mamang Dai’s The Black Hill (2014) as narratives of cultural memory in reconstructing the mnemonic communities of the indigenous population in Northeast India, helping them in the process of identification by confronting the hegemonic conflicting memories.

Developing a Health Equity Impact Assessment ‘Indigenous Lens Tool’ to address challenges in providing equitable cancer screening for indigenous peoples

BackgroundIn spite of past efforts to increase screening uptake, the rates of screening-detectable cancers including breast, cervical, colorectal and lung are rising among Indigenous persons in Ontario compared to other Ontarians. The Ontario Ministry of Health has an equity framework, the Health Equity Impact Assessment (HEIA) Tool, that was developed to guide organizations in the provision of more equitable health and social services. Although the HEIA Tool identifies that the health of Indigenous persons may benefit from more equitable provision of health and social services, it provides very little specific guidance on how to apply the HEIA Tool in a culturally relevant way to policies and programs that may impact Indigenous peoples.DiscussionGuided by the Calls to Action from the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada and the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, an Indigenous Lens Tool was developed through a collaborative and iterative process with stakeholders at Cancer Care Ontario and with representatives from Indigenous community-based organizations. The Indigenous Lens Tool consists of four scenarios, with supporting documentation that provide context for each step of the HEIA Tool and thereby facilitate application of the equity framework to programs and policies. The document is in no way meant to be comprehensive or representative of the diverse health care experiences of Indigenous peoples living in Canada nor the social determinants that surround health and well-being of Indigenous peoples living in Canada. Rather, this document provides a first step to support development of policies and programs that recognize and uphold the rights to health and well-being of Indigenous peoples living in Canada.ConclusionsThe Indigenous Lens Tool was created to facilitate implementation of an existing health equity framework within Cancer Care Ontario (now Ontario Health). Even though the Indigenous Lens Tool was created for this purpose, the principles contained within it are translatable to other health and social service policy applications.

Indigenizing Food System Planning for Food System Resiliency

Problem, research strategy and findings Planners conduct community food assessments for the purpose of supporting community food security efforts. However, assessments of community food assets, including their availability and access, are often limited in their consideration of ecological and cultural assets that are central to Indigenous food systems. Moreover, what are considered mainstream food assets may not reflect the everyday lived experiences of Indigenous peoples and traditional food sources. In this study we applied a citizen science–led photovoice food assessment, involving six Indigenous participants from Kitselas (Ts’msyen) First Nation in Canada. Using practice theory, the findings show how Indigenous concepts of relationality and reciprocity are intertwined in land-based food-related practices, which highlights the need for a holistic approach in documenting and planning around local food assets. Takeaway for practice The field of planning needs to respect and support Indigenous food sovereignty in planning policies. We recommend a more inclusive approach to community food assessment in planning, understanding how cultural food assets matter, and increasing community support to revitalize Indigenous food systems in culturally relevant ways.

Indigenous Incarceration in Canada

Canadian sentencing law reform in 1996 and the R. v. Gladue 1999 Supreme Court landmark decision, Canada introduced an internationally unique requirement for Canadian courts in sentencing Indigenous offenders to give special consideration to systemic factors in order to address the historic and ongoing experiences of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system Canada. While these reforms to the criminal justice system were centred around alleviating the egregious level of incarcerated Indigenous people, this analysis will reveal the implementation of Gladue principles has not been the transformative change many have hoped for. This Canadian policy research paper argues that the Canadian government’s Gladue policy has been underfunded and requires a commitment to the complete implementation of Gladue Reports and Gladue Courts to accomplish its objectives of considering the systemic circumstances of Indigenous offenders and providing criminal justice in a culturally appropriate manner.