Expatriate Experience Research Articles

“Should I stay or should I go?”—Why the future of global work may be less binary: Lessons on approaches to global crises from the experiences of expatriates during the COVID‐19 pandemic

COVID‐19 has significantly impacted expatriates, affecting their ability to work effectively and their personal and family lives. This study explores their experiences in different phases of the pandemic, and their perspectives on the future of international living in light of such global disruption. Involving over 600 expatriates in 48 countries, the research shows shifts in motivation and priorities as a result of the crisis and reveals how family (extended and immediate) topped expatriates' concerns. The study examines if and how support systems worked and looks at coping mechanisms, skills, traits, previous experience, and attitudes which participants found useful. A common theme was “falling between two stools”—where expatriates were ineligible for support in either their home country or in their host country. Others described being “pulled in different directions” or “torn by a dilemma” with pros and cons in either choice. The study contributes to the questions about the future of global work with results of the survey revealing changing norms for expatriation and global mobility raising the possibility of more nuanced approaches to global projects and less binary options for global professionals and their families.

COVID-19 related stressors and mental health outcomes of expatriates in international construction.

The construction industry is labor-intensive, and employees' mental health has a significant impact on occupational health and job performance. In particular, expatriates in international projects under the normalization of the epidemic are under greater pressure than domestic project employees. This paper aims to explore the association of stressors and mental health in international constructions during COVID-19. Furthermore, test the mediation effect of psychological resilience and moderating effort of international experience in this relationship. A survey of 3,091 expatriates in international construction projects was conducted. A moderating mediation model was employed to test the effect of psychological resilience and international experience. Then, statistical analysis with a bootstrap sample was used to test the mediation effect of the model, and a simple slope was used to test the moderating effect. Moderated by experience, the slope of the effect of stressors on psychological resilience changed from −1.851 to −1.323. And the slope of the effect of psychological resilience on mental health outcomes reduced by about 0.1. This suggests that experience is one of the buffering factors for individual psychological resilience of expatriates to regulate stress. Theoretically, this study verifies the mediation effect of psychological resilience between COVID-19 related stressors and mental health outcomes and importance of an expatriate's experience in an international assignment. Practically, this study provides guidelines for international construction enterprises and managers to make an assistant plan for expatriates during this pandemic time and pay more attention to their psychological status. The research also suggests that the best choice for challenging assignments is choosing a more experienced employee.

Expatriate’s food adaptation: when does acculturation elicit social identification vs differentiation?

PurposeExtant literature informs that expatriates develop a natural inclination towards host country food with increased acculturation. However, this study argues that expatriates might have divergent goals in different domains of food adaptation (private vs public), which eventually sheds new light on their acculturation process. This paper aims to investigate how expatriate's adaptation in private vis-a-vis public domain influences their food consumption behavior.Design/methodology/approachThis study draws on the optimal distinctiveness theory and domain-specific view of adaptation and tests the food adaptation outcomes of expatriates’ acculturation through social interactions with the local community. A survey was conducted among 120 expatriate newcomers currently living and working in the Middle East.FindingsThe findings show that acculturation positively influences food adaptation in the private (local food consumption), whereas its relationship with food adaptation in the public domain (local restaurant visits) assumes an inverted U-shape. Furthermore, the authors find that the latter relationship is negatively moderated by expatriate’s overall experience and positively moderated by uncertainty avoidance, which also unfolds situations when an expatriate follows social identification vis-à-vis differentiation pattern.Originality/valueThis work goes beyond the traditional focus on acculturation through social identification and provides evidence that differentiation effects must also be accounted for. The authors argue and provide empirical evidence that expatriates’ greater social interactions with the local community result in different food adaptation outcomes when private vs public consumption domains are considered. In addition, by analyzing the moderating effects of expatriate experience and uncertainty avoidance, the authors further provide evidence on when social identification vis-à-vis differentiation prevails.

Understanding the development of a common social identity between expatriates and host country nationals

Purpose This article examines the impact of expatriates' interaction adjustment and conducive work environment (i.e. trust, shared vision and intercultural communication) on the development of a common social identity between expatriates and host country nationals (HCNs) using the social identity theory (SIT). It also investigates whether increased trust, shared vision and intercultural communication mediate the relationship between expatriates' interaction adjustment and development of a common social identity.Design/methodology/approach Dyadic data were collected from 93 Chinese expatriates and 239 Pakistani HCNs using a three-wave time-lag design. A multilevel model was estimated using Bayesian estimation technique in the Mplus software.Findings Empirical evidence suggests an inverse relationship between expatriates' interaction adjustment and the development of a common social identity between expatriates and HCNs. Further, trust and intercultural communication led to a positive impact on the group memberships between expatriates and HCNs. However, no support was found regarding the mediating role of trust, shared vision and intercultural communication in this empirical research.Originality/value The existing literature focuses mainly on change experiences of expatriates during international assignments. However, the current study goes beyond this and investigates the individualized change experiences of HCNs. Further, empirical evidence in this research found a negative relationship between expatriates' interaction adjustment and the development of a common social identity between expatriates and HCNs, which needs to be examined further.

The Cassandra Experience: A Mixed Methods Study on the Intragroup Cognitive Dissonance of Italian Expatriates During the First Wave of COVID-19.

In March 2020, Italy was the first European country to be hit severely by the first wave of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and to put in place moderate-high containment measures. 594 Italian expatriates participated in a cross-sectional mixed-methods survey focusing on the period that goes from the beginning of March 2020 to the beginning of April 2020. The survey aimed to describe the experiences of participants when it comes to conflicting beliefs and behavior with the Italian or host country communities in relation to COVID-19, using the Intragroup Cognitive Dissonance (ICD) framework. We explored: (1) COVID-19 risk perception (assessed for themselves, the Italian community, and the host country community); (2) COVID-19 risk meta-perception (participants’ perception of the Italian and host country communities’ risk perception); (3) intensity of emotions (assessed for themselves); (4) national group identification (assessed for themselves in relation to the Italian and host country communities) before and after the first wave of COVID-19 in Italy. An inductive thematic analysis of three open-ended questions allowed an in-depth understanding of the experiences of Italian expatriates. Results describe the ICD of participants with the Italian or host country communities, expressed as a difference between COVID-19 risk-perception and risk meta-perception. ICD predicts that when a dissonance of beliefs and behavior is experienced within an individual’s group, a shift in identification with another more consonant group will happen, if identity enhancing strategies with the dissonant group are unsuccessful. Our findings showed that when the ICD was experienced with the host country community, this was solved through a disidentification strategy and mediated by negative emotions. Identity enhancing strategies with the host country community were unsuccessfully enacted as described by the qualitative answers of participants referring to episodes of racism, ridicule, and to a Cassandra experience: predicting a catastrophic future without being believed. Unexpectedly, participants experiencing the ICD with the Italian community did not enact a disidentification strategy. An increase in virtual contacts, enhanced sense of belonging, a stronger identification baseline, and different features of the two ICDs can be responsible for these results. This study sheds light on the relevance of ICD in natural settings and on international communities, during global crises.

It's all in the past: how do colonial legacies between host and home countries affect the expatriate experience?

PurposeWithin the expatriation subset of the wider IB literature, the focus of research has been on contemporary contextual factors. The purpose of this paper is to link the present to the past by investigating how the individual expatriate experience may be affected by a colonial legacy between host and home countries.Design/methodology/approachGiven the exploratory nature of this study, a qualitative interview-based approach eliciting thick, detailed descriptions of the practical experiences of seven Japanese expatriate managers working in Malaysia was adopted. These were supplemented by additional interviews with three host-country nationals who work alongside some of the expatriates. The data were analysed through a two-stage coding process.FindingsThe expatriate respondents were largely unanimous in their view that the colonial past between the two countries had no negative impact on their experiences in Malaysia, and the Malaysian interviewees corroborated this. On the contrary, the majority of the expatriates actually spoke positively about their experiences. This was especially true for expatriates in both the tourism and education/research field whose work was linked in some way to the period of Japanese occupation.Research limitations/implicationsThe small, single-context nature of the investigation limits generalisation. There are also many particularities in this study (the nature of Japanese-Malaysian postcolonial relations, cultural values of the Malaysians and Japanese, and so on) that are perhaps not easily relatable to other contexts. Having said this, qualitative research is not always geared towards generalisability but rather towards contextual intricacies and nuances.Originality/valueWhile most of the extant literature on expatriation has examined largely contemporary factors, this paper explores the impact of more historical events on the expatriate experience. Although such events may seem distant from an expatriate's current activities, this study suggests that in certain circumstances, they may have a lingering effect.

COVID-19 and self-initiated expatriate health workers: Spanish nurses in Germany

PurposeGiven that the incidence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) varies greatly between countries, it becomes relevant to explore self-initiated expatriate (SIE) health workers' perceptions of home vs host country safety during a global pandemic. Thus, the paper aims to study the effects of COVID-19 on the expatriation experience of Spanish SIE nurses in Germany, focussing on perceptions of home and host country safety as push/pull forces on their intentions to repatriate or stay.Design/methodology/approachSemi-structured interviews (n = 10) were conducted with Spanish SIE nurses in Germany between April/June 2020 followed by instant messaging interactions with the same participants in October/November 2020. Data analysis was assisted by NVivo software.FindingsOverloaded by information from social networks about the impact of COVID-19 in Spain compared with the situation in Germany, Spanish SIE nurses had exacerbated feelings of stress, and some reported having experienced guilt for not being in their home country. Nevertheless, the contrasting impact and management of the crisis and its relative effect on health workers and the larger society in Spain and Germany reinforced the nurses' intention to stay in Germany.Research limitations/implicationsThe research offers insights to organisations and public authorities involved with providing support to SIEs during crises, highlighting the implications of SIEs' social networks and dual allegiance to home and host countries during a global health emergency.Originality/valueThe study contributes to the growing literature on SIEs, whilst adding to the research on expatriates' well-being and safety during crises.

Twice American: Hispanic Writers in the United States

Taking as a starting point the most traditional experience of exile, this paper encourages a debate about the expatriation experience that has affected many Latin American intellectuals residing in and producing their works in the United States of America. Most have decided to write in Spanish in a country that, according to the dominant narrative, is based on a pluralist and tolerant society. But racism and discrimination are still rooted there, and all those who do not ‘belong’ are literally treated as ‘aliens’, especially if they are part of the Latino/Hispano community. This study aims to emphasise the cultural and literary impact that this wave of transnational and extraterritorial writers may have in the future. Moreover, it highlights the use of Spanish language as a political stance in a context which, in a not-so-distant future, will be increasingly influenced by Spanish-speaking people, who are still wrongly considered a minority.

Peril, privilege, and queer comforts: The nocturnal performative geographies of expatriate gay men in Dubai

This article investigates the intersection of expatriate experiences, queer men’s lives, and nocturnal geographies within the transnational Middle Eastern setting of Dubai, United Arab Emirates (UAE). Although narrowly focused on cisgender men who self-identify as “Western” and “gay,” the study addresses a lack of research about LGBT+ presence among expatriates globally, and poor coverage of queer residents in Gulf cities generally. Using ethnography and in-depth interviews among this segment of men who have come to Dubai to work in relatively privileged professional roles for at least two years, we illuminate the shifting, performative geographies of queer belonging in which these men engage to distinguish spaces that can be embodied in different moments with degrees of comfort and caution. Despite their imperiled position in an officially homophobic territory, these men use their various privileges (economic, social, cultural, and sometimes phenotypic) to counter peril in performing transnational identities that reaffirm their own senses of self (as gay), forge new collectivities (as Western), and distinguish themselves from others deemed suspect (potentially anyone “non-Western”). Findings point to the uneasy dynamics of inclusion/exclusion in this kind of unfixed gay nightlife geography, and the need to study queer expatriates in other world settings, as well as queer lives in Gulf cities more broadly, from a further intersectional perspective: beyond nocturnal geographies, and encompassing the range of queer denizens, not just this relatively privileged subset.

Accessing Healthcare Services as an Overseas Visitor::Japanese Expatriate Experiences in Thailand

Accessing Healthcare Services as an Overseas Visitor::Japanese Expatriate Experiences in Thailand

Race, whiteness and internationality in transnational education: academic and teacher expatriates in Malaysia

ABSTRACT The expansion of transnational education has diversified the destinations and mobility patterns of academic and teacher expatriates (i.e. education expatriates). Emerging literature have explored white Anglo-Western expatriates’ experiences of racism and racialization in non-white majority settings, but these are not usually analysed alongside that of less- and non-white expatriates. This article does so by drawing from qualitative interviews with forty racially diverse education expatriates in Malaysia to explore differential experiences in work, immigration and everyday life. It investigates expatriate experiences at the intersection of race, nationality and skin colour, and where relevant, the interconnections with gender, age, class and religion. It critically examines how education expatriates respond to their hierarchical position(ing)s within the dominant racial logics of (white) Westernness in postcolonial Malaysia. A translocational positionality approach offers valuable intersectional insights into the racialized processes that stratify education expatriates’ experiences of (dis)advantage and capital convertibility in contingent and contradictory ways.

Negotiating ‘global middle-class’ teacher professionalism: using transnational habitus to explore the experiences of teacher expatriates in Shanghai

This paper investigates the experiences of Western teacher expatriates in a Shanghai international schooling organization. We explore the risks and benefits associated with transnational mobility and how teacher expatriates, as part of the global middle-class (GMC), maintain and reaffirm their middle-class status. Focusing on adaptation and constraint in professional contexts, the data illustrates how the teachers respond to new discourses and the rules of exchange in the rapidly changing Chinese education market. We operationalise transnational habitus, as a conceptual tool, to explore how certain identities are sustained and negotiated in various moments of unsettlement. As these teacher expatriates navigate new professional contexts, we see how their habitus remains heavily influenced by class and previous professional experiences in their country of origin as they engage in new work environments, in order to secure an advantageous position.

Countering Islamophobia in Portugal: experience of Indonesian Muslim expatriates

The main purpose of this research is to investigate the Indonesian Muslim expatriate experiences in countering Islamophobia in Portugal. There are 488 Indonesian expatriates in Portugal, of whom 384 (78%) are Muslims, working on diplomatic missions, students, traders, professionals, laborers, and others. To analyze the data, the researcher used triangulation techniques such as interviews through guided written questions, observation, and documentation, using factor analyses covering items of Portugal government policy on religious life, characters of Portuguese culture, the characters of Indonesian Muslim socio-culture, educational background of Indonesian Muslim expatriates, and normative Islamic teaching inspiring their socioreligious views and attitude. As the main findings, the research revealed that in countering the Islamophobia experience, the Indonesian Muslim expatriates in Portugal feel joy, safety, peace, a harmonious life. Also, they feel like in their home towns; they can access public services easily and practice private, and religious activities normally, although the number of mosques in public places is very few. None of them experienced extreme hatred, prejudice, harassment, hostility, bad words, bad attitudes and treatments, discrimination, and Islamophobia from local citizens or other groups.

FALSAFAH PELAN STRATEGIK UNIVERSITI AWAM MALAYSIA MELALUI PENGALAMAN AHLI AKADEMIK EKSPATRIAT DALAM MENGORAK REPUTASI UNIVERSITI SEBAGAI HAB KECEMERLANGAN AKADEMIK DI PERSADA ANTARABANGSA

The Malaysian Education Development Plan 2015-2025 (Higher Education) has been specifically formulated by outlining ten (10) leaps to achieve continuous excellence in the higher education system in Malaysia thus becoming a hub of academic excellence on an international level. In line with that, the objective of the study is to trace the experience of international human capital in helping to shape the involvement of the reputation of Malaysian public universities on an international level. However, the debate that leads to the recruitment of international human resources is said to have no long-term impact on the development of a university. The discussion in this paper explores the experience of international human resources in making positive contributions to public universities in line with efforts to strengthen its position and status as a prestigious educational institution, in line with the contemporary transition of higher education. The narrative approach utilises a selection of original dialogues and involves 20 expatriate academics who meet the criteria of residency with a work visa, having the status of a self-initiated expatriate, are not classified as inter-university exchange staff, nor are on sabbatical leave. The contribution of this study is able to shift the contextual focus of the internationalisation literature of higher education institutions which was previously said to focus on generating income of a university, to a valuable human resource experience in contributing to the involvement of the university’s reputation globally. The findings of the study also insert an advanced dimension by presenting a detailed understanding of human resource mobility as well as introducing a new dimension that offers a deeper understanding of the university’s reputation involvement on an international level. This study seeks to offer specific evidence of how expatriate academics evaluate their expatriation experience by selecting a public university as a career place. While the results of the study are expected to be useful information for public universities in implementing alternative strategic planning policies for the future, further determining the scenario of Malaysian higher education.

Specific work-life issues of single and childless female expatriates: an exploratory study in the Swiss context

PurposeResearch on work–life interface in the expatriation context has to date focused on expatriates relocating with a family, and the work–life experiences of single and childless expatriates remain largely unexplored. This is particularly relevant for women, as female expatriates appear to be more often single than their male counterparts and have children less often. The aim of this paper is, therefore, to examine the specific work–life experiences of single and childless female expatriates who are working and living in the French-speaking part of Switzerland.Design/methodology/approachA qualitative research design has been adopted for this exploratory study. Data was collected through semi-structured face-to-face interviews with 20 single and childless female expatriates living and working in the French-speaking part of Switzerland.FindingsOur findings identify a set of personal, work-related, and social and cultural factors contributing to single and childless female expatriates’ conflict and enrichment between work and nonwork spheres, as well as a range of sources and types of social support they rely upon. Our findings demonstrate that work–life issues are also exacerbated for single and childless women in the international context.Originality/valueThis study is the first dedicated to the examination of specific work–life issues of single and childless women in the expatriate context. By revealing the specificities of their work–life experiences, this study contributes to the fields of (female) expatriate research and work–life research and advances current knowledge on nontraditional expatriates.

Reason to Expatriation of Construction Company Workers in UAE

During this circumstance, the expatriation is not an easy task, but the most important reason of expatriation is to earn money. This study aims to understand the intention of the expatriation, what is the anticipation of the expatriates about the host country as well as their life and to find out the experience of expatriation. The study is conducted with the mode of questionnaire and interview method. The questionnaire prepared is based on the review of literature, which include 60 questionnaires to analyze. The questionnaires are collected from the construction company workers of the UAE and from the analysis we can find out the reason of the expatriation.

“Stepping out of the ordinary”: exploring cross-cultural challenges of expatriates in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Purpose In the study of expatriation and expatriate adaptation, there are limited studies that focus on issues faced by expatriates working in foreign countries with very distinct cultures. This study aims to explore this idea through the experiences of western expatriates working in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). Two research questions were posed to examine the cross-cultural issues and challenges faced by expatriates in the KSA, as well as the role of cross-cultural training in expatriate adjustment. Design/methodology/approach The study was guided by an interpretivism paradigm through a qualitative method by using a semi-structured in-depth interview approach. Interviews were conducted among 12 expatriates from the USA and UK who are currently working in KSA. Findings A coding technique and theoretical thematic analysis was conducted to analyze the data. The results of this study highlighted three key themes that had a considerable influence on expatriates’ adjustment, in particular: culture shock, lack of pre-departure training and the demand for an extensive cross-cultural training. Research limitations/implications It is acknowledged that the existence of sub-cultures within the KSA would expose the respondents to varying cultural values within the community. Thus, future studies within a similar context should consider the influence of intra-cultural variations. Originality/value The findings of the study emphasized on the importance understanding the cultural gap between home and host country and the individual cultural awareness of the expatriate. It calls attention to the need for a tailored and extensive pre-departure, cross-cultural training and a collaborative effort between employees’ and managers to improve expatriates’ motivation and retention.

Adaptive Personality, Communication Competence and Psychological Health

Expatriate adjustment has gained wide attention because of its relevance to expatriates’ successful performance. This study examined the adaptation experience of Korean expatriates in India. Y.Y. Kim’s Integrative Theory of Cross-Cultural Adaptation offers a multidimensional system to explain the link between adaptive personality, communication and psychological health. Our analysis uses a self-reported questionnaire collected from 78 Korean expatriates. Results show positive correlation between theoretical constructs, suggesting expatriates’ personality, ability to communicate and ability to participate in the host country's social processes facilitate successful cross-cultural adjustment overseas.

Thriving and retention of expatriates: Cultural intelligence and organizational embeddedness inputs

Drawing on Conservation of Resources theory and the socially embedded model of thriving, we examine the resource antecedents and retention outcome of expatriate thriving. Using two-wave panel data from 103 international teachers in the United States, we found that the personal resource of cultural intelligence directly influenced thriving, and thriving led to expatriate actual retention. In addition, the contextual resource of organizational embeddedness served as a boundary condition that augmented cultural intelligence’s positive effect on thriving. Applying the concept of thriving to explicate expatriate experiences, we go beyond the dominant emphasis in the expatriate literature on expatriate adjustment. In doing so, we highlight the joint contribution of both personal and contextual resources associated with global work experiences and pinpoint potential boundary conditions that enable thriving.

Where Is the Love? Race, Self-Exile, and a Kind of Reconciliation

Cultivating solidarity or love for community for those systematically abused by the state and its civic community is a longstanding challenge. While the latter should primarily shoulder responsibility for (re)building trust, this article focuses on the abused self-exile’s agency and possible reasons for return. To understand possible motivations for (re)engagement, this article explores the African American expatriate experience rendered in fiction and criticism. It focuses specifically on William Gardner Smith’s The Stone Face and its portrait of the potentialities of Black love as a vehicle of social resurrection and the exercise of political power.