ExoMars Mission Research Articles

Fast detection of sulphate minerals (gypsum, anglesite, baryte) by a portable Raman spectrometer

AbstractWell‐resolved Raman spectra of gypsum, anglesite and baryte were detected using a portable Raman instrument (Ahura First Defender XL) in the laboratory and outdoor under atmospheric conditions. Spectra were obtained using a 785‐nm excitation. The portable spectrometers display generally lower spectral resolution compared with the laboratory confocal instrument but permit the fast, unambiguous detection of minerals under field conditions. Portable Raman instruments can be advocated as excellent tools for field geological, environmental as well as exobiological applications. A miniaturized Raman instrument will be included in the Pasteur analytical package of the ESA ExoMars mission and interesting research applications can now be proposed for in situ field planetary studies. Additionally, portable Raman instruments represent an ideal tool for demonstrating possible applications of Raman spectroscopic techniques outdoor. In geosciences this approach represents a new field which could completely change classical field work. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

ESSC-ESF Position Paper—Science-Driven Scenario for Space Exploration: Report from the European Space Sciences Committee (ESSC)

In 2005 the then ESA Directorate for Human Spaceflight, Microgravity and Exploration (D-HME) commissioned a study from the European Science Foundation's (ESF) European Space Sciences Committee (ESSC) to examine the science aspects of the Aurora Programme in preparation for the December 2005 Ministerial Conference of ESA Member States, held in Berlin. A first interim report was presented to ESA at the second stakeholders meeting on 30 and 31 May 2005. A second draft report was made available at the time of the final science stakeholders meeting on 16 September 2005 in order for ESA to use its recommendations to prepare the Executive proposal to the Ministerial Conference. The final ESSC report on that activity came a few months after the Ministerial Conference (June 2006) and attempted to capture some elements of the new situation after Berlin, and in the context of the reduction in NASA's budget that was taking place at that time; e.g., the postponement sine die of the Mars Sample Return mission. At the time of this study, ESSC made it clear to ESA that the timeline imposed prior to the Berlin Conference had not allowed for a proper consultation of the relevant science community and that this should be corrected in the near future. In response to that recommendation, ESSC was asked again in the summer of 2006 to initiate a broad consultation to define a science-driven scenario for the Aurora Programme. This exercise ran between October 2006 and May 2007. ESA provided the funding for staff support, publication costs, and costs related to meetings of a Steering Group, two meetings of a larger ad hoc group (7 and 8 December 2006 and 8 February 2007), and a final scientific workshop on 15 and 16 May 2007 in Athens. As a result of these meetings a draft report was produced and examined by the Ad Hoc Group. Following their endorsement of the report and its approval by the plenary meeting of the ESSC, the draft report was externally refereed, as is now normal practice with all ESSC-ESF reports, and amended accordingly. The Ad Hoc Group defined overarching scientific goals for Europe's exploration programme, dubbed "Emergence and co-evolution of life with its planetary environments," focusing on those targets that can ultimately be reached by humans, i.e., Mars, the Moon, and Near Earth Objects. Mars was further recognized as the focus of that programme, with Mars sample return as the recognized primary goal; furthermore the report clearly states that Europe should position itself as a major actor in defining and leading Mars sample return missions. The report is reproduced in this article. On 26 November 2008 the Ministers of ESA Member States decided to give a high strategic priority to the robotic exploration programme of Mars by funding the enhanced ExoMars mission component, in line therefore with the recommendations from this ESSC-ESF report.

Application of portable Raman instruments for fast and non-destructive detection of minerals on outcrops

Raman spectral signatures have been obtained in situ for a series of minerals using portable Raman instruments. Cerussite, anglesite, wulfenite, titanite, calcite, tremolite, andradite and quartz were detected using portable Raman spectrometer First Defender XL (Ahura). Baryte, almandine and realgar Raman spectra obtained by this instrument in the field were compared to the data measured by the other mobile Raman instrument Inspector Raman (DeltaNu). Bench Raman dispersive microspectrometer (InVia Reflex, Renishaw) was used for comparative purposes. All spectra were obtained using a 785 nm diode excitation. Although displaying lower spectral resolution comparing with the laboratory confocal instrument both portable instruments permit unambiguous detection of minerals in the field. These possibilities designate portable Raman machines as excellent tools for field geological applications. Miniaturised Raman instrument combined with LIBS will be included in the payload of the EXO Mars mission and would open interesting research possibilities in other in situ field planetary studies.

Development of a low power, high mass range mass spectrometer for Mars surface analysis

A compact, low power quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometer is being developed that will achieve a mass range of 2000 Da at low voltage (0–300 V 0–p) using a lower frequency fundamental voltage and supplemental excitation to very low q excitation parameter. The instrument is a prototype for a spacecraft hardware design referred to as the Mars Organic Mass Analyzer (MOMA) that is currently scheduled for flight to Mars in 2013 as part of the European Space Agency ExoMars mission. MOMA is one of two “life detection” instruments that are being sponsored by NASA. MOMA will accommodate both an atmospheric pressure laser desorption ionization source that will provide direct sampling of core samples for the detection of organics over a broad mass range and an electron ionization source coupled to a gas chromatograph for the detection of atmospheric gases and specific biomarkers (e.g., amino acids, nucleobases, etc.). The instrument reported herein is an early prototype used to demonstrate the basic design concepts for a low power instrument with high mass range, including the use of supplemental frequency scans to record mass spectra. In addition, mass spectra are obtained using CO 2 (the major constituent of the Mars atmosphere) as the bath gas, and a novel internal electron ionization source has been developed in which the electron beam enters through the ring electrode.

MEDUSA: The ExoMars experiment for in-situ monitoring of dust and water vapour

Dust and water vapour are fundamental components of the Martian atmosphere. In view of tracing the past environmental conditions on Mars, that possibly favoured the appearing of life forms, it is important to study the present climate and its evolution. Here dust and water vapour have (and have had) strong influence. Of major scientific interest is the quantity and physical, chemical and electrical properties of dust and the abundance of water vapour dispersed in the atmosphere and their exchange with the surface. Moreover, in view of the exploration of the planet with automated systems and in the future by manned missions, it is of primary importance to analyse the hazards linked to these environmental factors. The Martian Environmental Dust Systematic Analyser (MEDUSA) experiment, included in the scientific payload of the ESA ExoMars mission, accommodates a complement of sensors, based on optical detection and cumulative mass deposition, that aims to study dust and water vapour in the lower Martian atmosphere. The goals are to study, for the first time, in-situ and quantitatively, physical properties of the airborne dust, including the cumulative dust mass flux, the dust deposition rate, the physical and electrification properties, the size distribution of sampled particles and the atmospheric water vapour abundance versus time.

Assessment of Raman spectroscopy as a tool for the non-destructive identification of organic minerals and biomolecules for Mars studies

Several characteristic geological features found on the surface of Mars by planetary rovers suggest that a possible extinct biosphere could exist based on similar sources of energy as occurred on Earth. For this reason, analytical instrumental protocols for the detection of biomarkers in suitable geological matrices unequivocally have to be elaborated for future unmanned explorations including the forthcoming ESA ExoMars mission. As part of the Pasteur suite of analytical instrumentation on ExoMars, the Raman/LIBS instrument will seek elemental and molecular information about geological, biological and biogeological markers in the Martian record. A key series of experiments on terrestrial Mars analogues, of which this paper addresses a particularly important series of compounds, is required to obtain the Raman spectra of key molecules and crystals, which are characteristic for each biomarker. Here, we present Raman spectra of several examples of organic compounds which have been recorded non-destructively—higher n-alkanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carotenoids, salts of organic acids, pure crystalline terpenes as well as oxygen-containing organic compounds. In addition, the lower limit of β-carotene detection in sulphate matrices using Raman microspectroscopy was estimated.

Optical design of a combined Raman–laser-induced-breakdown-spectroscopy instrument for the European Space Agency ExoMars Mission

Among the different instruments that have been selected for the Pasteur payload on ExoMars is the Raman–laser-induced-breakdown-spectroscopy (LIBS) instrument. The novel, and technologically challenging, feature of this instrument is the integration of both Raman spectroscopy and LIBS techniques in the same hardware. An international team under the lead of TNO has been gathered together to produce a combined Raman-spectrometer–LIBS elegant breadboard. The instrument has been designed around an extremely compact spectrometer with a high resolution over a large wavelength range, which is suitable for both Raman spectroscopy and LIBS measurements. Low mass, size, and power consumption are the main drivers of the instrument design concept. A summary of the functional and environmental requirements together with a description of the optical design and its performance are included.

Searching for Life on Mars: Selection of Molecular Targets for ESA's Aurora ExoMars Mission

The European Space Agency's ExoMars mission will seek evidence of organic compounds of biological and non-biological origin at the martian surface. One of the instruments in the Pasteur payload may be a Life Marker Chip that utilizes an immunoassay approach to detect specific organic molecules or classes of molecules. Therefore, it is necessary to define and prioritize specific molecular targets for antibody development. Target compounds have been selected to represent meteoritic input, fossil organic matter, extant (living, recently dead) organic matter, and contamination. Once organic molecules are detected on Mars, further information is likely to derive from the detailed distribution of compounds rather than from single molecular identification. This will include concentration gradients beneath the surface and gradients from generic to specific compounds. The choice of biomarkers is informed by terrestrial biology but is wide ranging, and nonterrestrial biology may be evident from unexpected molecular distributions. One of the most important requirements is to sample where irradiation and oxidation are minimized, either by drilling or by using naturally excavated exposures. Analyzing regolith samples will allow for the search of both extant and fossil biomarkers, but sequential extraction would be required to optimize the analysis of each of these in turn.

Morphological biosignatures from relict fossilised sedimentary geological specimens: a Raman spectroscopic study

AbstractMorphological biosignatures (features related to life) and associated terrestrial sedimentary structures that provide possible sampling targets for the remote astrobiological exploration of planets have been analysed using Raman spectroscopic techniques. The spectral data from a suite of samples comprising crypto‐chasmoendoliths, preserved microbial filaments and relict sedimentary structures comprise a preliminary database for the establishment of key Raman biosignatures. This will form the basis for the evaluation of prototype miniaturised instrumentation for the proposed ESA ExoMars mission scheduled for 2013. The Raman spectral biosignatures of carotenoids and scytonemin, organic biomolecules characteristic of the cyanobacterial colonisation of geological matrices and biogeologically modified minerals are also identifiable in the sedimentary specimen materials. The results of this study demonstrate the basis of the molecular recognition of extinct and extant exobiology that will feed into the elemental structural analyses of morphological structures provided by associated SEM, XRD and laser‐induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) techniques on robotic analytical landers. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Complete Course in Astrobiology

1 Astrobiology: From the Origin of Life on Earth to Life in the Universe (Andre Brack). 1.1 General Aspects of Astrobiology. 1.2 Reconstructing Life in a Test Tube. 1.3 The Search for Traces of Primitive Life. 1.4 The Search for Life in the Solar System. 1.5 The Search for Life Beyond the Solar System. 1.6 Conclusions. 1.7 Further Reading. 2 From the Big Bang to the Molecules of Life (Harry J. Lehto). 2.1 Building Blocks of Life. 2.2 Big Bang: Formation of H and He. 2.3 First Stars: Formation of Small Amounts of C, O, N, S and P and Other Heavy Elements. 2.4 Normal Modern Stars, Bulk Formation of C, O, N, S, P and Other Heavy Elements. 2.5 The First Molecules (CO and H2O). 2.6 Interstellar Matter. 2.7 Generation of Stars: Formation of the Sun and Planets. 2.8 Further Reading. 2.9 Questions for Students. 3 Basic Prebiotic Chemistry (Herve). 3.1 Key Molecules of Life. 3.2 Historical Milestones. 3.3 Sources of Prebiotic Organic Molecules. 3.4 From Simple to Slightly More Complex Compounds. 3.5 Conclusions. 3.6 Further Reading. 3.7 Questions for Students. 4 From Molecular Evolution to Cellular Life (Kirsi Lehto). 4.1 History of Life at Its Beginnings. 4.2 Life as It Is Known. 4.3 Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA). 4.4 "Life" in the RNA-Protein World: Issues and Possible Solutions. 4.5 "Life" Before the Appearance of the Progenote. 4.6 The RNA World. 4.7 Beginning of Life. 4.8 Further Reading. 4.9 Questions for Students. 5 Extremophiles, the Physicochemical Limits of Life (Growth and Survival) (Helga Stan-Lotter). 5.1 A Brief History of Life on Earth. 5.2 Extremophiles and Extreme Environments. 5.3 Microbial Survival of Extreme Conditions. 5.4 Conclusions. 5.5 Further Reading. 5.6 Questions for Students. 6 Habitability (Charles S. Cockell). 6.1 A Brief History of the Assessment of Habitability. 6.2 What Determines Habitability? 6.3 Uninhabited Habitable Worlds. 6.4 Factors Determining Habitability. 6.5 A Postulate for Habitability. 6.6 Some Test Cases for Habitability. 6.7 Conclusions. 6.8 Further Reading. 6.9 Questions for Students. 7 Astrodynamics and Technological Aspects of Astrobiology Missions in Our Solar System (Stefanos Fasoulas and Tino Schmiel). 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 The Rocket Equation. 7.3 Orbital Mechanics and Astrodynamics. 7.4 Orbital Maneuvers. 7.5 Example: Missions to Mars. 7.6 Further Reading. 7.7 Questions for Students. 8 Astrobiology of the Terrestrial Planets, with Emphasis on Mars (Monica M. Grady). 8.1 The Solar System. 8.2 Terrestrial Planets. 8.3 Further Reading. 8.4 Questions for Students. 9 Astrobiology of Saturn's Moon Titan (Francois Raulin). 9.1 Extraterrestrial Bodies of Astrobiological Interest. 9.2 Some Historical Milestones in the Exploration of Titan. 9.3 General Properties, Formation and Internal Structure of Titan. 9.4 Atmosphere and Surface of Titan. 9.5 Astrobiological Aspects of Titan. 9.6 Outlook: Astrobiology and Future Exploration of Titan. 9.7 Further Reading. 9.8 Questions for Students. 10 Jupiter's Moon Europa: Geology and Habitability (Christophe Sotin and Daniel Prieur). 10.1 A Short Survey of the Past Exploration of Europa. 10.2 Geology of the Moon Europa. 10.3 Internal Structure of the Moon Europa. 10.4 Models of Evolution of the Moon Europa. 10.5 Astrobiological Considerations about Possibilities for Life on the Moon Europa. 10.6 Summary and Conclusions. 10.7 Outlook and Plans for Future Missions. 10.8 Further Reading. 10.9 Questions for Students. 11 Astrobiology Experiments in Low Earth Orbit: Facilities, Instrumentation, and Results (Pietro Baglioni, Massimo Sabbatini, and Gerda Horneck). 11.1 Low Earth Orbit Environment, a Test Bed for Astrobiology. 11.2 Astrobiology Questions Tackled by Experiments in Earth Orbit. 11.3 Exposure Facilities for Astrobiology Experiments. 11.4 Results from Astrobiology Experiments in Earth Orbit. 11.5 Future Development and Applications of Exposure Experiments. 11.6 Further Reading. 11.7 Questions for Students. 12 Putting Together an Exobiology Mission: The ExoMars Example (Jorge L. Vago and Gerhard Kminek). 12.1 Background of the ExoMars Mission. 12.2 ExoMars Science Objectives. 12.3 ExoMars Science Strategy. 12.4 ExoMars Mission Description. 12.5 Outlook and Conclusions. 12.6 Further Reading. 12.7 Questions for Students. 13 Astrobiology Exploratory Missions and Planetary Protection Requirements (Gerda Horneck, Andre Debus, Peter Mani, and J. Andrew Spry). 13.1 Rationale and History of Planetary Protection. 13.2 Current Planetary Protection Guidelines. 13.3 Implementation of Planetary Protection Guidelines. 13.4 Astrobiology Exploratory Missions of Concern to Planetary Protection. 13.5 Outlook: Future Tasks of Planetary Protection. 13.6 Further Reading. 13.7 Questions for students. Index.

Astrobiology and Missions at NASA

In his News Focus article “Astrobiology fights for its life” (19 Jan., p. [318][1]), A. Lawler describes NASA's astrobiology program as largely disconnected from its space-flight missions. But recent competitions paint a different picture. For example, Bruce Jakosky, the Principal Investigator (PI) of the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution mission (MAVEN), one of two candidates for the next Mars Scout, is also the PI of the NASA Astrobiology Institute's (NAI) University of Colorado team. MAVEN would study atmospheric gas escape from Mars to understand what effect atmospheric evolution has had on the planet's climate and habitability, placing that one piece of the puzzle into the larger context of the planet's biological potential. The NAI stimulates this kind of integrative thinking by bringing together broad, multidisciplinary groups of scientists who might not otherwise have the opportunity to work together and learn how to contribute to each other's research. MAVEN is an example of what can grow from this fertile ground. The Mars Scout selections included two instrument development efforts for ESA's ExoMars mission, both of which are direct products of the NASA Astrobiology program. In addition, two PI instruments on the 2009 Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) received Astrobiology support to enable their selection for flight. NAI current and former PIs and Co-Investigators are centrally involved in operations and science analysis for the Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity. The NAI also contributes to future missions through Focus Groups that mobilize expertise from across the Institute and the wider scientific community. The Mars Focus Group began by playing a seminal role in restructuring the Mars Program after the loss of NASA missions launched in 1998. It accomplished this by organizing astrobiology community input to NASA's Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG). Two NAI PIs have served as MEPAG Chair. The NAI Europa and Titan Focus Groups have also provided input to mission planners studying those opportunities, and the Astronomy Focus Group has provided an analysis of the astrobiology potential of the James Webb Space Telescope. Rather than being disconnected from NASA flight opportunities, astrobiology objectives and the astrobiology community are repeatedly found at the heart of NASA's missions. [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.315.5810.318

Urey Instruments To Test for Life on Mars

For the first time in more than 30 years, the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) plans to send a new instrument to Mars to address the question of life there. Called the Urey organic and oxidant detector to honor the late Nobel Laureate in chemistry Harold C. Urey, the compact instrument is scheduled to travel in 2013 aboard the Pasteur Rover as part of the ExoMars mission that is sponsored by the European Space Agency.

Digging deep for ice in Isidis Planitia—New constraints on subsurface volatile concentrations from thermal modeling

The Isidis Planitia region on Mars usually is regarded as a comparably attractive site for landing missions based on engineering constraints such as elevation and smooth regional topography. The Mars Express landed element Beagle 2 was deployed to this area, and the southern margin of the basin was selected as one of the backup landing sites for the NASA Mars Exploration Rovers. Especially in the context of the Beagle 2 mission, Isidis Planitia has been discussed as a place which might have experienced a volatile-rich history with associated potential for biological activity [e.g. Bridges et al., 2003. Selection of the landing site in Isidis Planitia of Mars Probe Beagle 2. J. Geophys. Res. 108(E1), 5001, doi: 10.1029/2001JE001820]. However the measurements of by the GRS instrument on Mars Odyssey indicate a maximum inferred water abundance of only 3 wt% in the upper few meters of the surface [Feldman et al., 2004. Global distribution of near-surface hydrogen on Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 109, E09006, doi: 10.1029/2003JE002160]. Based on these measurements this area seems to be one of the driest spots in the equatorial region of Mars. To support future landing site selections we took a more detailed look at the minimum burial depth of stable ice deposits in this area, focusing as an example on the planned Beagle 2 landing site. We are especially interested in the likelihood of ground ice deposits within the range of proposed subsurface sampling tools as drills or ‘mole’-like devices [Richter et al., 2002. Development and testing of subsurface sampling devices for the Beagle 2 Lander. Planet. Space Sci. 50, 903–913] given reasonable physical constraints for the surface and near surface material. For a mission like ExoMars [Kminek, G., Vago, J.L., 2005. The Aurora Exploration Program—The ExoMars Mission. In: Proceedings of the 35th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, abstract no. 1111, 15–19 March 2004, League City, TX] with a focus on finding traces of fossil life the area might be of potential interest, because these traces would be better conserved in the dry soil. Modeling and measurement indicate that Isidis Planitia is indeed a dry place and any hypothetical ground ice deposits in this region are out of range of currently proposed sampling devices.

ExoMars Alternative Escape Trajectories with Soyuz/Fregat

The objectives of ExoMars are to inject an orbiter around Mars and to land a rover on the surface to look for possible traces of life. During the first stages of the feasibility analysis, the mass margin of the orbiter was very small for a direct transfer in the Soyuz/Fregat scenario. An analysis of the combined use of lunar swing-bys and the Sun gravity gradient is performed with WESBOT in order to obtain alternative trajectories for injecting higher mass into Mars transfer. WESBOT is a GMV tool to find WSB transfers to the Moon and to design escape trajectories by performing several swing-bys with the Moon and the Earth. The weak stability boundary has been successfully used for lunar transfers (Hiten, SMART-1). For escape trajectories from the Earth, the potential mass gains depend on the escape direction and the departure date to make a series of gravity assists with the help of the Sun gravity gradient to save DeltaV. Several strategies are studied depending on the number and order of swing-bys. The departing conditions (date and orbit) are optimized but the arrival date to Mars is maintained because of mission requirements. For each type of strategy, a systematic search of initial guess trajectories is performed. The initial guess trajectory is made up of patched conics arcs and multiple shooting arcs when necessary. The optimal trajectories for the various scenarios are presented and show different morphologies. An analysis in terms of applicability to the ExoMars mission is included.

The specific molecular identification of life experiment ( SMILE)

We describe a compact, highly integrated instrument concept for the detection and identification of a wide range of molecules associated with extinct/extant life or potential life processes. The Specific Molecular Identification of Life Experiment ( SMILE) will be sensitive to the presence of a range of target molecules using both electrical and optical transduction techniques, and incorporates molecular imprinted polymers in addition to traditional biological receptors such as antibodies. A number of versions of the concept are possible depending on available resources e.g. mass, volume, etc. The full concept utilises a novel imaging interferometer where a large number of molecular receptors are deposited on the measurement plane of an imaging interferometer and read out by an imaging detector, enabling multiple targets—biomarkers—within a sample to be measured simultaneously. The optics can also form the basis of an UV–NIR imaging Fourier spectrometer allowing basic mineralogy studies to be conducted using optical properties to assist in the determination of the geological context of the samples. By incorporating micro-fabricated transducer arrays, micro-fluidics and artificial molecular recognition systems, as well as recombinant antibody technology with appropriate integration methods, SMILE forms a compact and robust “Life Marker Chip” which has been proposed for future planetary missions including ESA's ExoMars mission, where the instrument offers the possibility of conducting a direct in situ search for signs of past or present biological activity on Mars. In addition to its role in planetary exploration, derivatives of SMILE have multiple terrestrial applications in fields such as forensic analysis and environmental monitoring.