Cerebral small vessel disease (SVD) is the most common vascular contributor to dementia. SVD markers often coexist, contributing to difficulty assessing their independent contributions to cognitive domains. MRI-visible perivascular spaces (PVSs) are an emerging SVD marker visualized by MRI. We previously showed that basal ganglia PVSs cross-sectionally contribute to worse cognition, independent of other SVD markers. To further characterize the clinical relevance of PVS, we studied its role as a unique SVD marker of longitudinal cognitive decline. Participants without stroke or dementia were included in the Vanderbilt Memory and Aging Project, a longitudinal observational cohort study based in Nashville, TN. Participants completed 3T MRI at study entry to measure SVD burden (PVS volume fraction, white matter hyperintensities volume, lacune counts, and cerebral microbleeds counts). PVS volumes were segmented using a deep learning algorithm. Participants underwent comprehensive serial neuropsychological testing over an 11-year follow-up period (mean follow-up = 4.9 ± 3.1 years). Each SVD marker was related to longitudinal neuropsychological performances using a linear mixed-effects model adjusting for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, baseline cognitive status, apolipoprotein E-ε4 presence, Framingham Stroke Risk Profile, and intracranial volume. Head-to-head comparisons simultaneously tested multiple statistically significant SVD markers. Among participants (n = 750, age 68 ± 9 years, 52% female), higher basal ganglia PVS burden at baseline was associated with worse longitudinal performances in Boston Naming Test (β = -29.63; 95% CI -56.66 to -2.60), Animal Naming (β = -33.09; 95% CI -65.66 to -0.51), Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV Coding (β = -86.36; 95% CI -150.9 to -21.82), executive function composite (β = -9.51; 95% CI -14.33 to -4.68), Hooper Visual Organization Test (β = -26.06; 95% CI -50.53 to -1.59), and episodic memory composite (β = -7.05; 95% CI -11.9 to -2.21). In head-to-head comparisons, basal ganglia PVS remained independent associations with executive function composite (β = -7.47; 95% CI -12.84 to -2.10) and Hooper Visual Organization Test (β = -22.11; 95% CI -42.38 to -1.85). Basal ganglia PVS burden independently contributes to worse longitudinal executive function and visuospatial skills independent of other SVD markers, highlighting PVS as an emerging marker of domain-specific cognitive decline in aging. Although causation cannot be established, findings further support PVS as a vascular contributor to deep brain structure damage underlying cognitive decline over time.

The neuro-behavioral contributions of early parental autonomy support to executive function.

This longitudinal study examined the developmental relations between first-order Theory of Mind (ToM), advanced ToM, and executive function (EF) from ages 4 to 7.5. Two-hundred-three German children were assessed at ages 4, 5.5, and 7.5 on measures of ToM, EF (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility), general cognition, and language. Using regression, structural equation modeling (SEM), and latent class analysis, we investigated whether early ToM and EF predict advanced ToM performance and how the developmental pathways unfold. We found significant concurrent relations between ToM and EF at all time points, as well as a predictive relation from EF at age 4 to advanced ToM at age 7.5. ToM at age 4 also significantly predicted ToM at age 7.5, suggesting early ToM lays a foundation for later conceptual growth. Cross-lagged SEM revealed that EF at age 4-but not at 5.5-predicted advanced ToM, indicating EF may support ToM development at key transition points. Latent class analysis identified four ToM profiles: consistently high performers, late bloomers, partial achievers, and inconsistent performers. Early language skills and later inhibition differentiated these groups; general cognition played a lesser role. These findings support a hybrid account of ToM development: early conceptual understanding is foundational for later competence, but qualitative shifts are required to master more complex ToM forms. EF and language appear as critical supports for ToM development, especially during periods of conceptual change. This study contributes to a more nuanced view of how domain-general and domain-specific processes interact in the development of complex social cognition. SUMMARY: Longitudinal study of Theory of Mind (ToM), advanced ToM, and executive function (EF) from ages 4 to 7.5. ToM and early EF at age 4 significantly predicted advanced ToM performance at age 7.5, independent of general cognitive ability. Latent class analysis identified four distinct developmental ToM pathways, including partial achievers and inconsistent performers. Findings support a hybrid view: early conceptual continuity lays a foundation, but later conceptual change is needed for advanced mental state reasoning.

Executive function deficits in bipolar disorder (BD) are major contributors to disability in older age BD (OABD). We investigated the difference between OABD and age-equated healthy comparators (HC); and, in the OABD group, the associations of executive function with age, symptom severity, global cognition, and daily functioning. Cross-sectional analysis of executive function in OABD versus HC. Analysis of large archival dataset harmonized from 12 international OABD studies. Older adults (≥50 years) with OABD (n = 614) and HC (n = 192). Executive function was assessed via Trail Making Test B (TMT-B) completion time; covariates included age, self-reported gender, education, study site, medications (antipsychotics, lithium), and psychomotor speed. Executive function was worse in OABD than in HC, even after controlling for psychomotor speed (p < 0.001). In the OABD group, test completion was associated with less severe manic symptoms (p < 0.001). Worse executive function was associated with older age (p = 0.001), antipsychotic use (p < 0.001), worse global cognition (p < 0.001), and worse daily functioning (p < 0.001). Executive dysfunction is a prominent feature of OABD, associated with several demographic and clinical characteristics. Future longitudinal studies of executive function and OABD need to assess the individual impact of impairment in executive function on everyday functioning to inform personalized interventions targeting specific patient subgroups.

The association between positive childhood experiences and executive function among Chinese adolescents.

Effects of 12-week mindfulness-based intervention on executive functioning skills, brain oxygenation, and biomarkers of cognitive function in baseball players: a randomized controlled trial.

Parallel contributions of socioeconomic status and bilingual experiences on executive function and the brain in young children.

Executive function (EF), including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, is essential for goal-directed behavior across the lifespan. Regular exercise improves EF, with benefits moderated by frequency, intensity, time, and type. Progressive overload—systematic increases in exercise demands—may further optimize EF outcomes, yet its application in EF interventions remains unclear. The purpose of this review was to explore how progressive overload has been implemented in exercise interventions targeting EF. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) extension for scoping reviews processes were used to systematically search, select, and chart data from 44 studies published between 2014 and 2024. Findings were synthesized using quantitative summaries and qualitative thematic analysis. Most studies involved children, adolescents, or older adults. Moderate to large effect sizes were more commonly reported in interventions that progressively overloaded intensity and complexity, as well as in studies specifically targeting working memory and inhibitory control. Reporting inconsistencies and limited experimental manipulation remain key gaps. Future research should systematically manipulate progressive overload and explore occupational and resistance-training contexts.

Effects of 24-Week Almond Supplementation on Executive Function and Processing Speed in Middle-Aged Asian Indians with Prediabetes: An Open-Label Randomized Controlled Trial.

To investigate if psychological/cognitive aspects and executive functions can influence conditioned pain modulation (CPM) activity in elderly people with and without chronic pain. A cross-sectional unifactorial repeated measures case-control study with 19 adults (89.5% women, age: 73.2±5.6y) with chronic primary musculoskeletal pain and 38 adults (74.5% women, age: 74.3±4.4y) without chronic pain was conducted. Pain features, psychological/cognitive (anxiety, depression, pain hypervigilance, and pain catastrophizing), and 2 executive functions (working memory, mental inhibition) were assessed. Subsequently, CPM was evaluated on changes obtained in mechanical (pressure pain threshold-PPT) stimuli with the cold-pressor test paradigm. A significant group X time interaction after controlling all cofounders was found: PPTs were higher after the conditioned stimulus in individuals without chronic pain (CPM increase 15%±10%), whereas PPTs were lower after the conditioned stimulus in those with chronic pain (CPM decrease -11%±7%) when compared with PPTs at baseline. In elderly people with chronic pain, pain intensity and catastrophizing accounted for 28.6% of the variance of the CPM activation index. In elderly people without chronic pain, just pain catastrophizing had significant predictive value accounting for 10.6% of the variance of CPM activation index. Elderly people with chronic musculoskeletal pain exhibited impaired CPM activation as compared with adults without chronic pain. Thus, CPM activation was associated with the intensity of pain and, in a lesser extent, with pain catastrophizing, but not with anxiety/depressive levels and executive functions.

The effects of acute and chronic exercise on executive functions and core symptoms in adults with ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Personalized approach to cognitive remediation for people with schizophrenia and autism.

Depression and cognition in adolescents: A comparison of cross-sectional and longitudinal effects.

The association between screen time and cognitive function in children: The partially mediating role of putamen volume.

The effect of acute stress on executive function in children: Moderation by parasympathetic nervous system activity.

The current study has investigated whether targeted language or executive function (EF) training can enhance Theory of Mind (ToM) in autistic children, and whether bilingualism would modulate training effects on the autistic children’s ToM performance. Forty autistic children (20 monolingual, 20 bilingual) were randomly assigned to language- or EF-based training groups, while an additional monolingual group received no training. Verbal and non-verbal ToM were assessed pre- and post-training. Both group and case-series analyses were conducted. At the group level, monolingual autistic children did not demonstrate significant pre–post improvements in either ToM modality, regardless of training type. In contrast, pre- to post-training comparisons in the bilingual autistic groups demonstrated significant verbal and non-verbal ToM gains following both language and EF training. No baseline differences were observed across groups in non-verbal IQ, vocabulary, syntactic comprehension, or working memory. Individual-level analyses further showed improvements primarily after language training, with heterogeneous improvements in verbal and non-verbal ToM across the bilingual autistic cases. The overall findings suggest that bilingual experience may strengthen improvement for both verbal and non-verbal ToM functions, further supporting the hypothesis that improvement in domain-specific functions, like language or EF, may lead to improvement in socio-cognitive functions as well. While preliminary, these results highlight the importance of including bilingual autistic populations in language and EF training research, and contribute to ongoing debates regarding the relations between language, EF and ToM in autism. • Language and EF training significantly enhanced Theory of Mind in ASD. • Bilingual children showed greater ToM gains across training conditions. • Bilingualism modulated responsiveness to cognitive and linguistic training.

Executive functioning (EF) consists of basic components (inhibition, working memory [WM] and flexibility) and more complex components that depend on the proper functioning of the basic components. Deficits in EF are common in alcohol use disorder (AUD) and can impact treatment effectiveness and quality of life. This study examined the impact of neuropsychological rehabilitation (NR) on improving these functions. A prospective observational cohort study was conducted in an AUD treatment unit, with three evaluation points: baseline and after 3 and 6 months. The study compared EF recovery in patients undergoing group therapy for AUD (WTG: weekly therapeutic groups; NRG: NR group). The sample consisted of 65 participants who underwent medically assisted detoxification from April 2021 to August 2023. The following instruments were administered: a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Dependency Severity Questionnaire, the Frontal Assessment Battery (FAB), the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Trail Making Test, the Verbal Fluency Test, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Colour and Word Test-Stroop. Statistical procedures included parametric and nonparametric tests and linear mixed-effects models. EF improved in both groups, but the NRG showed a higher increase in The FAB after 3 months, which was reflected in better performance in its key components (WM and flexibility). This improvement was maintained 6 months after the start of treatment. Integrating NR into AUD treatments appears to contribute to greater and faster improvement.

Exploring the Interictal Neuropsychological Burden of Pediatric Migraine.

The advantages of bilingualism on executive functioning have received intense attention over the past decade. However, characterizing what makes someone bilingual versus monolingual is complicated. Experiment 1 explores the impact of multilingualism and English-Mandarin language context priming on flanker task performance. Here, multilingualism is measured using the Multilingual Language Diversity (MLD) score. Experiment 2 investigates the influence of a familiar-unfamiliar language context priming (English-Welsh) on the flanker task performance. Experiments 1 and 2 found no significant differences between language contexts. However, the mean RT was similar between the control block and the mixed-language block in Experiment 1, but significantly different in Experiment 2. Only in Experiment 1 did higher MLD scores predict better performance on the flanker task, but only in mixed-language contexts (e.g., English and Mandarin) and not in single-language contexts (e.g., English or Mandarin only) While there were no significant language block differences in Experiment 2, the patterns of results were unexpectedly similar to Experiment 1, where the fastest RT was the control, followed by the mixed and single language blocks. This suggests that the effects of language contexts and the degree of multilingualism are limited to executive function. Additionally, while there were no effects of language familiarity on executive function, the pattern was similar for familiar and unfamiliar language contexts, and this warrants further investigation.

This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effects of acute hypoxia, barometric pressure and supplemental carbon dioxide on cognition. Five databases were searched, yielding 137 eligible records and 458 effect sizes. Risk of bias was assessed using the Rosendal score; mean (SD) score was 48 (15) %, indicating moderate study quality. Random effects meta-analyses assessed the effect of hypoxia on all effect sizes, on the speed and accuracy components of attention, memory, information processing, crystallised intelligence (learned knowledge and skills), executive function and reaction time, and the effect of supplemental carbon dioxide on performance. Effects of hypoxia on response speed and accuracy and of barometric pressure on cognition were investigated by meta-regression. When combining all effect sizes, cognition was impaired by hypoxia (Hedges' g: -0.48, 95 % confidence interval [CI]: -0.62 to -0.33) and was worse under normobaric than hypobaric conditions (Hedges' g difference: -0.58, 95 % CI: -0.87 to -0.30). Response accuracy was impaired more than response speed (Hedges' g difference: -0.38, 95 % CI: -0.09 to -0.67). Accuracy was impaired in the attention, crystallised intelligence, executive function and memory domains. Speed was impaired in the attention domain only. Seventeen effect sizes investigated the effect of supplemental carbon dioxide. Cognition was worse under poikilocapnic than isocapnic or hypercapnic hypoxia (Hedges' g: -1.55, 95 % CI: -2.59 to -0.53). These findings are important for groups at risk of low oxygen exposure, as they enhance understanding of how hypoxia impairs cognition and can improve hypoxia recognition and recovery training in operational settings.