Excreta Disposal Research Articles

Groundwater nitrate contamination and associated human health risk assessment in southern districts of Punjab, India.

Consumption of high NO3 containing water may pose serious health hazard especially in children (< 5years). The source of NO3 in groundwater includes surface leaching from wastewater and waste dump sites, animal excreta disposal, industrial effluents, and N-based fertilizers, etc. This study aimed to investigate the concentration of NO3 in groundwater of 14 intensively cultivated districts of Malwa Punjab, India, and its possible health hazards in local residents. The sampling of 76 sites revealed the concentration of NO3 in ranges of 38.45-198.05mgL-1, and over 92% sites showed the high level of it than the safe limits as decided by the Bureau of Indian standards (45mgL-1) and World Health Organization (50mgL-1). The possible health hazards of high NO3 intake was estimated using USEPA human health risk assessment (HHRA) model for both adult and children. Results of this study suggested the chronic daily intake (CDI) in the ranges of 1.09-5.65 and 2.56-13.20 in adult and children population of this region, respectively. The hazard quotient (HQnitrate) value was > 1 in most sampling locations ranging 1.09-5.65 for the adult and 2.56-13.20 for children population of Malwa. This study indicates that 93.42% adult and 100% young population of the Malwa are at higher risk of chronic toxicity by excess NO3 intake. The HHRA results suggested a high vulnerability of a local community to NO3 toxicity in this region; therefore, there is an instant need to take preventive measures to safeguard the health of local residents.

Deskripsi Sanitasi Sarana PembuanganTinja Di Desa Jebeng palmitan Kecamatan Sukoharjo Kabupaten Wonosobo Tahun 2017

AbstractDescription Sanitation of Excreta Disposal Facility in Jebengplampitan Village, sub district of Sukoharjo,WonosoboRegency 2017.Excreta disposal facility is the important part of environment health. To preventFaecal Borne Diseases disruption and spreading, feces need to handle sanitarily. Depend on the previousstudy found out that the sanitation of excreta disposal facility in Jebengplampitan Village, sub district ofSukoharjo, WonosoboRegency still low, from 228 KK (100%) there are 20 KK (8,8%) has up to standardtoilet, there is water seal latrine. Whereas 208 KK (91,2%) has below standard toilet. The purpose of thisresearch is to know the sanitation of excreta disposal facility in Jebengplampitan Village, sub district ofSukoharjo, WonosoboRegency in the year 2017.The kind of this research is descriptive research. Samplingtaken by random sampling. The collecting data methods are observation and interview by using checklist andquestioner. The subject of this research is excreta disposal facility that used by society in JebengplampitanVillage, sub district of Sukoharjo, WonosoboRegency.The result of this research point out that the sanitationcondition of excreta disposal facilityin Jebengplampitan Village, sub district of Sukoharjo, WonosoboRegencyfrom 47, there are 42 (89,4%) fulfill standard, 5 (10,26%) below of standard. By this result toilets there are45 (95,7%) without septictank, whereas 2 (4,3%) toilet with septictank.This research can be conclude that thesanitation condition of excreta disposal facilityin Jebengplampitan Village, sub district of Sukoharjo, WonosoboRegency are below of standard from 47 houses, only 2 houses that have fulfill standard toilet, andthe other dumping into the fish pool or river. The writer propose in order to the family that has no septictank,should be built quickly, health society center (Puskesmas) preferable to doing Health promotion in everyfamily and the society make it joint budgeting into building excreta disposal facility.

Unbundling household preferences for improved sanitation: A choice experiment from an urban settlement in Nicaragua

Many urban settlements in developing countries still lack access to sanitation services, which puts the environment and population health at risk. The lack of knowledge on household preferences for improved sanitation has been an impediment to extending conventional and onsite sanitation infrastructure. This study implemented a choice experiment to elicit households' willingness to pay for the disposal of different types of waste (i.e. wastewater, excreta, and rainwater) in an urban settlement in Nicaragua. Generalized multinomial logit models were estimated to account for heterogeneity among respondents in both choice behavior and preferences for specific attributes. Findings indicate that households are willing to pay a considerable amount of money for improved disposal of wastewater, excreta, and rainwater. However, households have stronger preferences for wastewater and excreta removal than for disposal of rainwater.

Communal latrine utilization and associated factors in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a community-based cross-sectional study

Abstract Despite the quick urban population growth increased volume of wastes, including human excreta, which demands an expanded need of infrastructure, solid institutional setup and communities' engagement for management of safe disposal of excreta, arrangement of such basic social services has not developed as per the rate of population growth. Mostly, communal latrines are inclined towards an absence of cleanliness, as they accommodate many people beyond their capacity, filling up septic tanks quickly. A community-based cross-sectional study conducted in 817 randomly selected communal latrine user households, five focus group discussions and four key informant interviews were analysed. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to discover the impact of different factors on the use of communal latrines. The findings revealed that the rate of communal latrine use in Addis Ababa was about 79.8%. Unhygienic conditions, latrine emptying challenges, extreme smell, number of family units sharing the same squats, and latrine designs for the aged and children were identified as barriers to latrine utilization. This study suggests that, in parallel with the continued investments to increase access to sanitary facilities in the city, the management and behavioural change part has likewise to be stressed for better use and sustainability.

Risk Factors for Diarrhea Cases in Communities Living Along Deli River, North Sumatera

Background: Diarrhea disease is the second leading cause of death in children under five yea­rs old, and is responsible for killing around 525,000 children every year. Interventions to pr­e­vent diarrhea, including safe drinking-water, use of improved sanitation and hand wa­sh­i­ng with soap can reduce disease risk. This study aimed to investigate risk factors of dia­r­r­h­e­a­ among communities living along Deli river, North Sumatera. Subjects and Method: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in communities living along Deli river, North Sumatera. A sample of 96 study subjects was selected for this study. Th­e dependent variable was diarrhea. The independent variables were use of toilet, clean water, hand wash, processing of waste, human excreta. The data were collected by questionnaire and analyzed by a multiple logistic regression. Results: The risk of diarrhea increased with lack of toilet use (OR= 1.67; 95% CI= 0.99 to 2.7­9; p= 0.040), poor use of clean water (OR= 1.66; 95% CI= 1.02 to 2.70; p= 0.035), hand wa­shing without soap (OR= 1.74; 95% CI= 1.12 to 2.68; p= 0.002), poor garbage management (OR= 2.50; 95% CI= 1.33 to 4.89; p= 0.001), and improper human excreta disposal (OR= 1.64; 95­%­ CI= 1.04 to 2.60; p= 0.032). Conclusion: The risk of diarrhea increases with lack of toilet use, lack of clean water, hand wa­shing without soap, poor waste management, and improper human excreta disposal. Keywords : diarrhea, personal hygiene, sanitation Correspondence : Elvita Susanti. Masters Program in Public Health, Universitas Suma­t­e­ra U­tara, Jl. Universitas No. 21, Medan, North Sumatera. Email: elvitasusantiskm@gmail.­c­o­m. ­Mobile: 081375520310, 08116005324. Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health (2019), 4(1): 47-54 https://doi.org/10.26911/jepublichealth.2019.04.01.06

Rapid health assessment of newly arriving refugees at Adjumani Refugee Camps, Northern Uganda, August 2016

Introduction : fresh political clashes in South Sudan led to an influx of >40,000 refugees to Adjumani District, Northern Uganda in July 2016. This influx overstretched Adjumani Refugee Camp’s capacity to manage refugees, potentially creating a fertile ground for disease outbreaks. We conducted a Rapid Health Assessment to assess health status, identify potential public health threats, and recommend evidence-based interventions. Methods : we used a structured questionnaire to collect data among a convenient sample of refugees through face-to-face interviews. We interviewed health workers using a standardized checklist on the availability of essential health services. We determined the presence of Global Acute Malnutrition (GAM) using mid-upper arm circumference. We collected data on water, sanitation, hygiene promotion and shelter through on-site observations and record reviews. Refugees voluntarily sought participation during the assessment. Results : we interviewed 197 refugees. The ratio of latrine stances to persons was 1:223 (vs. recommended 1:50). Water supply was 7.8 liters/person/day (vs. recommended 15 liters). Of 131 refugees who had various ailments, 49 (37%) did not utilize the health services provided by relief agencies. Of the 197 refugees interviewed, 175 (89%) did not have mosquito nets. GAM was present in 520 (6.8%) of 7,544 children aged 6–59 months screened at the Elegu border. A double portion for lunch and supper was served once, and supper was eaten without heating. We observed poor hygienic practices, including open defecation, use of unsafe water collected from a nearby river for drinking and daily utility, poor sewage drainage, and overcrowding in shelters. Hand-washing facilities were insufficient. Self-disposal of placentae post-delivery was reported. Conclusion : inadequacies in basic sanitary supplies, hygienic practices, and disease prevention measures make this refugee camp vulnerable for disease outbreaks. We recommended provision of hand-washing facilities, safe water, excreta disposal facilities, and health education to the refugees.

Determinants of Anaemia among Adolescents in Rural Nalgonda

Prevalence of anemia has been adequately studied in India but there is need to study temporal changes in prevalence, its determinants, especially during adolescence-a phase of rapid growth life, under ‘continuum of care’ concept. The present study quantifies the prevalence, severity and type of anemia among school attending adolescents of rural Nalgonda, and identify socio-demographic, cultural and nutritional factors related with the anemia. 353 healthy subjects between 11–19 years of age were included. Data was collected on structured questionnaire through face-to-face interview and compiled on Windows EXCEL. Appropriate statistical tests of significance were applied to identify associations and results tabulated. Age, gender, blood group, handwashing and type of house had significant association with prevalence of anaemia in the present study. Factors such as religion, mother's education, family size, social class, use of footwear, type of family, BMI, method of excreta disposal, type of diet, drinking water source did not show significant association with prevalence of anaemia.

Battling Soil-Transmitted Intestinal Worm Disease: From the Hookworm Campaigns of the Rockefeller Foundation to Contemporary Mass Drug Administration

In the early twentieth century, the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission and the Rockefeller Foundation’s International Health Board (later, International Health Division) undertook campaigns in a number of world regions to treat hookworm disease and to promote ‘sanitation,’ that is, improved excreta disposal. The campaigners learned that chemical therapy would not clear all hookworm infections, and they were unable to mobilize the support of governments for the reform of open defecation practices. Some campaigns achieved successes in reducing disease, but they were discontinued in the 1920s on the understanding that sanitation programs were foundational for success in eliminating hookworm disease. In the first decade of the twentyfirst century, under the rubric of “Neglected Tropical Diseases,” global health organizations re-engaged the struggle against all three soil-transmitted helminth (STHs) infections – hookworm, roundworm, and whipworm. The new campaigners rolled out mass drug administration (MDA) programs to reduce the incidence of disease without programs to improve excreta disposal. This approach effectively ignored the lessons of the early twentieth century campaigns. Intestinal worm transmission continued, and the efficacy of the MDA programs was threatened by the emergence of helminthic drug resistance.

Drug resistance and dissemination of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase 1 positive bacteria in a patient

Objective: The aim of this work was to report the surveillance and dissemination of NDM-1 positive bacteria in a patient and ward environment. Methods: In 2010, during the therapy for a 51 years old patient, clinical and environmental samples were collected for carbapenem resistant bacterial culture, according to the clinical microbiological examination. Strains identification and antibiotic susceptibility were tested by VITEK Compact 2 system and E-test. The bla(NDM-1) was detected by PCR and analyzed by sequencing. Plasmids containing bla(NDM-1) were submitted to PFGE-S1 and Southern hybridization. Results: During hospitalization from October 1st to November 4th, nine strains were isolated from blood, sputum, urine, fecal, and ward ground samples. The Klebsiella oxytoca, Raoultella planticola, and Acinetobacter baumannii were isolated from blood sample. The Klebsiella pneumonia and Acinetobacter baumannii were isolated from sputum sample. An Acinetobacter lwoffii was isolated from urine sample. An Escherichia coli was isolated from fecal sample. And the Acinetobacter lwoffii and Acinetobacter spp. were isolated from ward ground. Four strains were NDM-1 positive, which were Raoultella planticola (RpNDM1) isolated from blood, Escherichia coli (EcNDM1) isolated from fecal, Acinetobacter lwoffii (AlDNM1) and Acinetobacter spp. (AsNDM1) isolated from ward ground. Four NDM-1 positive strains were resistant to Piperacillin, Piperacillin tazobactam, Cefepime, Ceftriaxone, Ceftazidime, Imipenem, Meropenem, and Ertapenem. Southern hybridization revealed that bla(NDM-1) were all located on plasmids in the four positive strains. Conclusion:bla(NDM-1) can transfer rapidly among different species, resulting in difficult to control and prevent. While isolating patient who is carrying NDM-1 positive strains, more attention should be paid to the disposal of patient's excreta, especially stool, should be paid more attention.

Impact of pit latrines on drinking water contaminations in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

ABSTRACTPit latrines are projected as a safe method of excreta disposal without considering its potential impact on groundwater contamination. To understand the possible link between pit latrines and groundwater quality, two villages using pit latrines and groundwater were purposely selected in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. In the targeted villages, the numbers of pit latrines and groundwater wells, their depth, subsoil strata, distance between them, year of establishment, and design were determined. Drinking water samples from the two villages (Kot and Takht-e-nasrati) were collected and analyzed for coliform, nitrates, and nitrites. Groundwater contamination in both villages was confirmed possibly due to pit latrines, particularly in the permeable soil profile. Also, it was observed that local communities are often ready to take remedial measures once they understand the potential link between pit latrines and groundwater contamination and the associated health risks.

Prevalence of open air defecation and awareness and practices of sanitary latrine usage in a rural village of Raipur district

Background: The practice of open defecation is rampant in India and our country is home to the world’s largest population of people who defecate in the open. Insanitary disposal of human excreta, along with unsafe drinking water and poor hygiene conditions, is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in low-income countries. The study was conducted with objective to find sanitary latrine usage, prevalence of open air defecation and awareness related to diseases caused by open air defecation in the rural population of a village in Raipur district.Methods: A total of 155 households were selected for the study using simple random sampling technique by lottery method. One member from each household, preferably the head of the family (if not available, any elder person in the family), was interviewed personally. A structured questionnaire was used to collect information regarding the background characteristics, awareness and practices about sanitary latrine usage. Results: Majority of the study participants 109 (70.3%) had sanitary latrines in their houses. The prevalence of open air defecation in the study area was found to be 23.2%. Around 2/3rd (65.2%) of study subjects were not aware about spread of disease due to open air defecation. Conclusions: Awareness regarding spread of diseases due to open air defecation is poor. Effective political commitment and administrative support will be the key points of success of the Swachha Bharat Abhiyaan program.

Understanding the Challenges of Improving Sanitation and Hygiene Outcomes in a Community Based Intervention: A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural Tanzania.

Good sanitation and clean water are basic human rights yet they remain elusive to many rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). We carried out a cross sectional study to examine the impact of a four-year intervention aimed at improving access to water and sanitation and reducing waterborne disease, especially diarrhea in children under five years old. The study was carried out in April and May 2015 in Busangi, Chela and Ntobo wards of Kahama District of Tanzania. The interventions included education campaigns and improved water supply, and sanitation. The percentage of households (HHs) with access to water within 30 min increased from 19.2 to 48.9 and 17.6 to 27.3 in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The percentage of HHs with hand washing facilities at the latrine increased from 0% to 13.2%. However, the incidence of diarrhea among children under five years increased over the intervention period, RR 2.91 95% CI 2.71–3.11, p < 0.0001. Availability of water alone may not influence the incidence of waterborne diseases. Factors such as water storage and usage, safe excreta disposal and other hygiene practices are critical for interventions negating the spread of water borne diseases. A model that articulates the extent to which these factors are helpful for such interventions should be explored.

Socio-demographic determinants of Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in migrant workers of Peninsular Malaysia

BackgroundThe number of migrants working in Malaysia has increased sharply since the 1970’s and there is concern that infectious diseases endemic in other (e.g. neighbouring) countries may be inadvertently imported. Compulsory medical screening prior to entering the workforce does not include parasitic infections such as toxoplasmosis. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection among migrant workers in Peninsular Malaysia by means of serosurveys conducted on a voluntary basis among low-skilled and semi-skilled workers from five working sectors, namely, manufacturing, food service, agriculture and plantation, construction and domestic work.MethodsA total of 484 migrant workers originating from rural locations in neighbouring countries, namely, Indonesia (n = 247, 51.0%), Nepal (n = 99, 20.5%), Bangladesh (n = 72, 14.9%), India (n = 52, 10.7%) and Myanmar (n = 14, 2.9%) were included in this study.ResultsThe overall seroprevalence of T. gondii was 57.4% (n = 278; 95% CI: 52.7–61.8%) with 52.9% (n = 256; 95% CI: 48.4–57.2%) seropositive for anti-Toxoplasma IgG only, 0.8% (n = 4; 95% CI: 0.2–1.7%) seropositive for anti-Toxoplasma IgM only and 3.7% (n = 18; 95% CI: 2.1–5.4%) seropositive with both IgG and IgM antibodies. All positive samples with both IgG and IgM antibodies showed high avidity (> 40%), suggesting latent infection. Age (being older than 45 years), Nepalese nationality, manufacturing occupation, and being a newcomer in Malaysia (excepting domestic work) were positively and statistically significantly associated with seroprevalence (P < 0.05).ConclusionsThe results of this study suggest that better promotion of knowledge about parasite transmission is required for both migrant workers and permanent residents in Malaysia. Efforts should be made to encourage improved personal hygiene before consumption of food and fluids, thorough cooking of meat and better disposal of feline excreta from domestic pets.

Hand washing with soap and WASH educational intervention reduces under-five childhood diarrhoea incidence in Jigjiga District, Eastern Ethiopia: A community-based cluster randomized controlled trial.

Despite the tremendous achievement in reducing child mortality and morbidity in the last two decades, diarrhoea is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality among children in many developing countries, including Ethiopia. Hand washing with soap promotion, water quality improvements and improvements in excreta disposal significantly reduces diarrhoeal diseases.The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of hand washing with soap and water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) educational Intervention on the incidence of under-five children diarrhoea. A community-based cluster randomized controlled trial was conducted in 24 clusters (sub-Kebelles) in Jigjiga district, Somali region, Eastern Ethiopia from February 1 to July 30, 2015. The trial compared incidence of diarrhoea among under-five children whose primary caretakers receive hand washing with soap and water, sanitation, hygiene educational messages with control households. Generalized estimating equation with a log link function Poisson distribution family was used to compute adjusted incidence rate ratio and the corresponding 95% confidence interval.The results of this study show that the longitudinal adjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR) of diarrhoeal diseases comparing interventional and control households was 0.65 (95% CI 0.57, 0.73) suggesting an overall diarrhoeal diseases reduction of 35%. The results are similar to other trials of WASH educational interventions and hand washing with soap.In conclusion, hand washing with soap practice during critical times and WASH educational messages reduces childhood diarrhoea in the rural pastoralist area.

English

On-site sanitation facilities, mostly pit latrines are the main points of human excreta disposal in peri-urban low-income settlements in Kenya. Collection, treatment and final disposal of pit latrine faecal sludge, pose a significant management problem and present public health risks. The choice of appropriate faecal sludge treatment technology depends on precise region based data on the sludge characteristics that are often unavailable. The study analysed physiochemical characteristics of faecal sludge sampled at different depths of pit latrines. Twenty-four samples were collected from six pit latrines along the depth strata at 1-m intervals from the surface to 3 m depth. Samples were analysed for chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), ammonia, total nitrogen and total phosphorus. The mean COD: BOD ratio was 1:5 with a concentration of 112800 and 24600 mg/L, respectively. Concentrations for all parameters were variable and higher in comparison with properties reported in literature. Upper layers had higher concentrations than lower depths. The concentrations of the sludge were 10-100 higher than acceptable limits for in-fluent sludge into municipal wastewater treatment plants. These results show that disposal of pit latrine faecal sludge into the wastewater treatment plants without co-treatment overload the system since treatment plants in use currently have not been designed to handle pit latrine sludge. The properties of faecal sludge analysed indicate that the wastewater treatment plants may not be capable of treating faecal sludge unless co treatment mechanisms are applied. Therefore, influent faecal sludge must be maintained within allowable concentrations; otherwise, the effluents may lead to significant environmental pollution impacts. Key words: On-site sanitation, depth strata, faecal sludge disposal, low-income settlements.

Social determinants of morbidity during infancy: Results from a cross-sectional study in rural areas of Assam, India

Background: Assam, one of the seven North Eastern states of India has achieved the highest decline in maternal and child mortality compared to other states, still neonatal mortality and infant mortality rates are very high. Apart from other causes, certain social factors unique to Indian subcontinent are also responsible for high mortality and morbidity among children here. Objectives: To know the prevailing morbidity conditions among the infants and to assess the social determinants of morbidity of infants in rural areas of Assam. Materials and Methods: It was a cross-sectional study conducted among 250 rural families having an infant in each family. The primary caregiver was interviewed using pre-tested semi-structured interview schedules and investigators also clinically evaluate the index child for any morbidity. Data collected regarding various sociodemographic variables of the family, morbidity status of the infant and also the environmental variables relevant to the study were analyzed tabulated and percentages, and proportions were calculated. Chi-square test was done to see the relationship between the factors. Results: The study observed that prevalence of teenage mothers was high (32.4%). Most of the mothers were primipara (41.2%), and were belonging to nuclear families of lower socioeconomic strata (57%). In our study, acute respiratory infections (33.3%), fever (24.6%), and diarrhea (21.7%) were found to be the most common morbidities among infants. Statistically significant association was also found between morbidity of infants and male gender (p=0.003) and numbers of siblings (p=0.005), use of sanitary water source (p=0.001), and excreta disposal (p=0.001). Conclusion: This study observed that social factors which influence infant morbidity included male gender and numbers of siblings, use of sanitary water source and excreta disposal, less education of mothers, less family income, and lower social class of the family.

Defecation practices in residents of urban slums and rural areas of hubballi, Dharwad: a cross sectional study

Background: The unsafe disposal of excreta is a principal cause in the transmission of pathogens within the environment and improvements in excreta management provide significant reductions in diarrhoeal diseases. Objectives of present study are to understand the factors impacting on defecation practices and to study the prevailing defecation practices in adults and children and to assess the knowledge and attitudes with regard to sanitation practices in rural areas and urban slums of Hubballi, Dharwad, Karnataka.Methods: A community based cross sectional study was conducted in 3 areas of Hubballi and Rural Areas of Noolvi. A total of 120 households were visited; 55 of urban and 65 rural. The adult member of the household was interviewed about the sanitary practices followed and their knowledge and attitude towards Safe Sanitation and Open Air Defecation was assessed.Results: 64.18% of the households had an independent toilet in their house (87% in urban and 44.6% in rural). Among these, in only 85% households the toilet was used by all members. While in 11 houses some individuals preferred open air defecation. The practice of open air defecation was found in 44.16% of study sample (21% in urban slums and 63% in rural areas). In children, usage of toilets was only 46.5%. 54% children practiced open air defecation (28.8% in urban slums, 80% in rural areas). The usual sites for open air defecation were open fields (77%), alongside gutter (3%) and streets (20%).Conclusions: According to World Health Organisation, open defecation is the “riskiest sanitation practice of all.” Effort from individuals, communities and government is essential to achieve the goal of open defection free India.

Association of community sanitation usage with soil-transmitted helminth infections among school-aged children in Amhara Region, Ethiopia

BackgroundGlobally, in 2010, approximately 1.5 billion people were infected with at least one species of soil-transmitted helminth (STH), Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, hookworm (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus). Infection occurs through ingestion or contact (hookworm) with eggs or larvae in the environment from fecal contamination. To control these infections, the World Health Organization recommends periodic mass treatment of at-risk populations with deworming drugs. Prevention of these infections typically relies on improved excreta containment and disposal. Most evidence of the relationship between sanitation and STH has focused on household-level access or usage, rather than community-level sanitation usage. We examined the association between the proportion of households in a community with latrines in use and prevalence of STH infections among school-aged children.MethodsData on STH prevalence and household latrine usage were obtained during four population-based, cross-sectional surveys conducted between 2011 and 2014 in Amhara, Ethiopia. Multilevel regression was used to estimate the association between the proportion of households in the community with latrines in use and presence of STH infection, indicated by > 0 eggs in stool samples from children 6–15 years old.ResultsPrevalence of STH infection was estimated as 22% (95% CI: 20–24%), 14% (95% CI: 13–16%), and 4% (95% CI: 4–5%) for hookworm, A. lumbricoides, and T. trichiura, respectively. Adjusting for individual, household, and community characteristics, hookworm prevalence was not associated with community sanitation usage. Trichuris trichuria prevalence was higher in communities with sanitation usage ≥ 60% versus sanitation usage < 20%. Association of community sanitation usage with A. lumbricoides prevalence depended on household sanitation. Community sanitation usage was not associated with A. lumbricoides prevalence among households with latrines in use. Among households without latrines in use, A. lumbricoides prevalence was higher comparing communities with sanitation usage ≥ 60% versus < 20%. Households with a latrine in use had lower prevalence of A. lumbricoides compared to households without latrines in use only in communities where sanitation usage was ≥ 80%.ConclusionsWe found no evidence of a protective association between community sanitation usage and STH infection. The relationship between STH infection and community sanitation usage may be complex and requires further study.

Management Practices and Feed Supplements on the Growth of Two Chicken Breeds (Gallus Domesticus L.) under Smallholders’ Farm Conditions: Case of Rajshahi

The present study assessed the management practices and feed supplements on growth performance of two common chicken breeds viz., Fayoumi (an exotic) and Sonali (a crossbred) in 10 Upozillas or Police Stations of Rajshahi District. For the collection of experimental data every week, a government, 10 private and 10 backyard smallholders’ poultry farms were selected, and the investigation was conducted from January to December 2015. Fourteen such major management practices as feeding, vaccination, bio-safety measures, disposal of wastes and dead bodies were considered to rank the farms from excellent (score 5) to unacceptable (score 1) scales. All the parameters showed significant variation (P&lt;0.05) except room heating, source of water, bio-safety measures, contacts with veterinarians, disposal of excreta, access of wild animals and disease management. The second half of the survey witnessed a relatively better management practices in all farm types. Results on feed supplements and growth performance of both sexes of Fayoumi and Sonali chickens up to 8 weeks with four dietary treatment groups viz., T1 (control), T2 (control + 12500 IU vitamin A (VitA)/kg feed), T3 [control + essential amino acids (EAAs)] and T4 (control + 12500 IU VitA/kg feed + EAAs) were promising. Feed conversion ratios (FCR), survivability (SB%) and carcass characteristics (CC) exhibited treatment effects (P&lt;0.001) but no breed effect with respect to FCR. Conversely, gender effect showed significant variation for all the CC (P&lt;0.05) except for breast meat. In contrast, dressing yield, drumstick meat and thigh meat had no treatment effects. It appeared from the present results that strict bio-safety oriented management practices, coupled with the selection of fast growing and heavy laying breeds of chickens and feed supplements at recommended doses could ensure sustainability as well as profitability of the emerging poultry farms in the study area. &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D; &#x0D;

A Study to assess the Knowledge of Adults Regarding Importance of Sanitary Latrines in Basha Nagar Davangere with a view to Develop Pamphlet

Sanitation is one of the determinants of quality of life and human development index. Lack of sanitation and unhygienic practices facilitates the transmission of pathogens resulting in many potential diseases. The quality of life of people can be improved by safe disposal of human excreta. It is the paramount important for health and welfare and also for the social and environmental effect it may have in the community involved.