Exclusive Food Source Research Articles

Ankyloglossia as a Barrier to Breastfeeding: A Literature Review.

This is a literature review of ankyloglossia and its correlation with lactation problems. Ankyloglossia, commonly referred to as tongue-tie, brings about functional difficulties and, in some cases, may lead to early weaning. It is crucial to use breastfeeding as the exclusive food source for the first six months of an infant's life, and the interference of the tongue contributes substantially to success in this regard. Even though there are many publications about ankyloglossia, there are still many controversies about its definition, diagnosis, classification, and treatment decision determined via frenotomy. Some researchers state that the identification of ankyloglossia should be based on morphological and anatomical evidence, while others claim that a short or tight frenulum should be examined in correlation with the impact on the mother-infant dyad during breastfeeding. By encouraging and supporting mothers in coping with feeding difficulties, their lactation experiences are improved, and they can continue breastfeeding.

Microbial mutualism suppression by Trichoderma and Bacillus species for controlling the invasive ambrosia beetle Xylosandrus compactus

Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is among the most invasive ambrosia beetles causing severe damage to host plants belonging to various ecosystems. Foundress females excavate galleries into the plant xylem introducing mutualistic ambrosia fungi which are the exclusive food source for their offspring. The cryptic habits of this fungus-farming insect and its wide host range facilitated its rapid spreading worldwide. Despite several advances in deepening the bio-ecology of this beetle, there is still a general lack of information about effective control strategies. In this context, microbials, such as antagonistic bacteria and mycoparasitic fungi, can have the potential to act as alternative management tools. Here, we evaluated, for the first time, the potential of commercially available microbial agents for suppressing the growth of the main beetle mutualist, Ambrosiella xylebori, and consequently to hamper the beetle progeny development. The antagonistic activity of five Trichoderma and two Bacillus-based biofungicides was first evaluated in vitro by means of dual-culture experiments in Petri dishes. Then, beetle bioassays were conducted by exposing carob twigs, previously treated with different concentrations of each biofungicide, to beetle foundresses. Tested microbial antagonists significantly suppressed the growth of A. xylebori on Petri dishes. A significant reduction of the beetle progeny was observed in galleries of treated twigs compared to controls. The higher reduction in mutualist growth and brood production was obtained within galleries of T. atroviride treated twigs. Our results show the potential of the tested microbials to suppress the beetle mutualist growth within galleries and consequently to affect the development of its progeny.

Human milk: processing and conservation – a review

Human milk has a balance of nutrients and bioactive compounds, and it must be the exclusive food source during the first six months of the infant's life. In cases where the woman is unable to breastfeed, due to hypogalactia or pre-existing disease, the use of donated human milk, available in human milk banks, is recommended. Currently, in the human milk banks the processing applied for greater conservation is Holder pasteurization. Therefore, the objective of this work is to perform a search in the literature about new possible treatments to be applied to human milk, and its influence on its physical-chemical composition; and in this sense, the studied processes were: Holder pasteurization, lyophilization, spray-drying, high hydrostatic pressure, high temperature and short time, and short wave ultraviolet irradiation. For that, a search was performed in databases, and 126 articles were selected to carry out this review according to the keywords used. It was observed that the studied treatments can be applied for the processing and conservation of human milk, once it was applied in matrices with similar composition.

Characterization and potential application of an α-amylase (BmAmy1) selected during silkworm domestication

Efficient resource utilization plays a central role in the high productivity of domesticated plants and animals. Whether artificial selection acts on digestive enzymes in the domesticated silkworm (Bombyx mori), which is larger than its wild ancestor, Bombyx mandarina (B. mandarina), remains unknown. In this study, we present the characteristics of a novel alpha-amylase, BmAmy1, in B. mori. The activity of recombinant BmAmy1 was maximal at 35 °C and pH 9.0, and could be suppressed by amylase inhibitors from mulberry, the exclusive food source of silkworms. Three different transposable element fragments, which were independently inserted in the 5′-upstream regulatory region, might be responsible for the enhanced expression of BmAmy1 in different domesticated silkworm strains as revealed by dual-luciferase reporter assay. The BmAmy1 overexpression increased the weight of female and male B. mori by 11.9% and 6.8%, respectively, compared with non-transgenic controls. Our results emphasize that, by exploring the genetic mechanisms of human-selected traits, the domestication process could be further accelerated through genetic engineering and targeted breeding.

A Very Hungry Caterpillar: Polyethylene Metabolism and Lipid Homeostasis in Larvae of the Greater Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella).

Larvae of the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella) possess the remarkable ability to consume and rapidly degrade low-density polyethylene. Previous studies have investigated the involvement of the animal's microbiome, but little is known about the host's actual role and if it benefits from biodegradation of this synthetic polymer. We used a combination of RNA sequencing and biochemical approaches to assess caterpillars fed honeycomb, fed polyethylene (PE), or starved for up to 72 h. Sequencing of gut transcripts revealed PE-fed larvae retain an expression profile consistent with normal intestinal function but also show distinct molecular signatures indicative of enhanced fatty acid metabolism (FAM). Further, quantification of total lipid content validated the impact of a PE diet on FAM; in contrast to lipid-depleted starved animals, PE-fed caterpillars maintain lipid reserves similar to honeycomb-fed larvae. Additionally, we found the activity of putative enzymes involved in lipid oxidation (e.g., alcohol dehydrogenase) are considerably higher in PE-fed larvae, indicating that on a functional level, these caterpillars are inducing pathways to effectively metabolize PE. Overall, we put forward a hypothesized model where the similarity in chemical structure between PE and its natural honeycomb diet has endowed larvae of G. mellonella with the extraordinary capability to derive energy from PE as an exclusive food source through pre-existing metabolic pathways.

Competition fluctuates across years and seasons in a 6-species-fish community: empirical evidence from the field

Competition not only occurs between species, but (probably more importantly) also among individuals within species, especially, for species occurring in high densities and when resources are limiting. Fluctuating densities and dietary overlap may account for massive ecological and evolutionary changes in fish communities. We sampled a mixed juvenile (0+ stages, being younger than 1 year of age) fish community at the Lower Rhine over three consecutive years, including native and newly established species (~ 64,000 captured individuals and ~ 4200 dissected fish). Our aim was to develop a new approach in which data on density, individual consumption rates, and diet overlaps (both intra- and interspecific) solely originating from the natural environment, were used and combined to estimate species-specific competitive strengths within and between seasons and species. The juvenile fish community at the food-limited Rhine was dominated by invasive gobies. Species-specific consumption rates decreased depending on the dietary overlap with other juveniles. Two invasive gobies (Neogobius melanostomus and N. fluviatilis) showed the greatest competitive abilities, followed by a third invasive Gobiid species (Ponticola kessleri) and the native Aspius aspius, a species utilizing an exclusive food source. Both other native species (Perca fluviatilis and Sander lucioperca) had the lowest estimates of food-related competitive strength, indicating that these species are forced into a juvenile competitive bottleneck by the invasive gobies, before they finally can develop into successful predators on gobies later in life. Our new analytical approach to measure dietary competitive strength among individuals provides a powerful tool to empirically study eco-evolutionary feedback dynamics in the field.

<p class="Body">Maternally inherited symbiotic bacteria in ticks: incidence and biological importance

Ticks are exclusive blood-feeding parasites that are of medical and veterinary importance. Ticks are also host for several maternally inherited symbiotic bacteria that are non-pathogenic bacteria and have potential roles in tick biology and the transmission of co-infecting pathogens. In order to gain a comprehensive view of these symbionts in ticks, we overviewed their incidence and biological importance within ticks based on available data. The symbionts in ticks are diverse, and their incidence and frequency vary across different tick species and different geographical populations of the same species. In some cases, symbionts of Coxiella, Francisella and Rickettsia genera may provide tick hosts essential nutrients absent from the exclusive food source of ticks and exhibit mutualistic relationships with their hosts. However, most symbionts are facultative and affect the biological phenotypes of their tick hosts through various ways. For some strains of Coxiella and Francisella, advanced genomic data and phylogenetic investigations have revealed their interactions with hosts and their evolutionary transitions of pathogenic and mutualistic forms. These findings are valuable for understanding tick-symbiont associations, and may help to develop new strategies to control ticks and tick-borne diseases.

Mixotrophy and intraguild predation – dynamic consequences of shifts between food web motifs

Mixotrophy is ubiquitous in microbial communities of aquatic systems with many flagellates being able to use autotroph as well as heterotroph pathways for energy acquisition. The usage of one over the other pathway is associated with resource availability and the coupling of alternative pathways has strong implications for system stability. We investigated the impact of dominance of different energy pathways related to relative resource availability on system dynamics in the setting of a tritrophic food web motif. This motif consists of a mixotroph feeding on a purely autotroph species while competing for a shared resource. In addition, the autotroph can use an additional exclusive food source. By changing the relative abundance of shared vs. exclusive food source, we shift the food web motif from an intraguild predation motif to a food chain motif. We analyzed the dependence of system dynamics on absolute and relative resource availability. In general, the system exhibits a transition from stable to oscillatory dynamics with increasing nutrient availability. However, this transition occurs at a much lower nutrient level for the food chain in comparison to the intraguild predation motif. A similar transition is also observed with variations in the relative abundance of food sources for a range of nutrient levels. We expect this shift in food web motifs to occur frequently in microbial communities and therefore the results from our study are highly relevant for natural systems.

Dual Effect of Phenolic Nectar on Three Floral Visitors of Elsholtzia rugulosa (Lamiaceae) in SW China.

Some plants secrete toxic nectar to appeal to most effective pollinators and deter non-pollinators or nectar thieves; however available information about ecological function of toxic nectar remains scarce. Elsholtzia rugulosa stands out as a plant with toxic nectar recorded in SW China. We focused on the functional significance of the phenolic compound that imparts toxic to the nectar of E. rugulosa. The effects of phenolic nectar were studied in three visitors of the flowers of the winter-blooming E. rugulosa Hemsl. (Lamiaceae) in SW China. The pollinating species Apis cerana Fabricius (Apidae; Asian honey bee) and two occasional visitors, Vespa velutina Lepeletier (Vespidae; yellow-legged Asian hornet) and Bombus eximius Smith (Apidae; a bumble bee) were tested for their preferences for low and high concentrations of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid in hexose and sucrose solutions. The pollinator is important for the plant, which is dependent on pollinator visits to attain a higher seed production and it is most likely that the combination of phenolic toxic nectar and the adaptation to phenolic nectar by A. cerana delivers an evolutionary advantage to both actors. The low and high concentrations of the phenolic acid were nearly totally refused by both occasional visitors V. velutina and B. eximius and were preferred by the pollinator A. cerana. E. rugulosa gains by having a much higher seed production and the pollinating honey bee by having an exclusive and reliable food source during the winter season at high altitudes in SW China. We found that the function of the toxic phenolic compound has dual roles by appealing to legitimate pollinators and deterring non-pollinators of E. rugulosa.

Molecular characterization and expression analysis of the mulberry Na+/H+ exchanger gene family

Na+/H+ exchangers (NHXs) have important roles in cellular pH, and Na+ and K+ homeostasis in plants. Mulberry is not only an important traditional economic woody plant known for its leaves, which are the exclusive food source of the silkworm Bombyx mori, but it can also adapt to many different adverse conditions, including saline environments. However, little is known about the NHXs in this important perennial tree. In this study, we identified and cloned seven putative NHX gene family members from Morus atropurpurea based on a genome-wide analysis of the Morus genome database. A phylogenetic analysis and genomic organization of mulberry NHXs suggested that the mulberry NHX family forms three distinct subgroups. Transcriptome data and real-time PCR of different mulberry varieties under normal culture conditions revealed that the mulberry NHX family has a different tissue-specific pattern in the two mulberry species. The MaNHX genes' expression analyses under different stresses (salt and drought) and signal molecules (abscisic acid, salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide and methyl jasmonate) revealed that MaNHXs not only could be induced by salt, drought and abscisic acid as describe in the literature, but were also induced by other signal molecules, which indicated that MaNHX members exhibited diverse and complicated expression patterns in different mulberry tissues under various abiotic stresses, phytohormones and plant signaling molecules. Our results provide some insights into new and emerging cellular and physiological functions of this group of H+-coupled cation exchangers, beyond their function in salt tolerance, and also provide the basis for further characterizations of MaNHXs' physiological functions.

De novo assembly, gene annotation, and marker development of mulberry (Morus atropurpurea) transcriptome

Mulberry (Morus atropurpurea) is an economically important tree with a long history of extensive cultivation in Asia because it is the exclusive food source for the silkworm (Bombyx mori). Recently, mulberry has gained additional commercial value as a source of medicinal compounds, as animal fodder, and for landscaping. In the present work, the mulberry transcriptome was sequenced using the Illumina paired-end sequencing technology. A total of 105 million 90-bp paired-end reads were generated, and 60,069 unigenes were assembled with an N50 of 1219 bp. Based on a sequence similarity search with known proteins, 40,121 genes were identified. Among these genes, 31,548 were annotated with 55 gene ontology functional categories, 7790 had a Cluster of Orthologous Groups classification, and 23,188 mapped to 128 biological pathways in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway database. In addition, 10,268 microsatellites were developed and characterized as potential molecular markers. These data will accelerate the understanding of mulberry growth and development mechanisms and facilitate gene discovery and functional genomic studies in mulberry.

Human disturbance of Bewick's Swans is reflected in giving‐up net energy intake rate, but not in giving‐up food density

Measuring the food left in experimental trays when study organisms cease feeding on them [so‐called giving‐up densities (GUDs)] is an accepted technique for assessing predation risk and disturbance. However, in natural settings, accessibility and energetic harvest costs may vary spatially, and GUDs may be confounded. In this study, we assessed whether at a heterogeneous site, non‐experimental GUDs could reveal the effect of disturbance. We measured initial and GUDs of tubers of Fennel Pondweed Potamogeton pectinatus, which form here the exclusive food source of Bewick's Swans Cygnus columbianus bewickii during their migratory stopover. We calculated giving‐up net energy intake rates (GUNs) by correcting for biomass accessibility and foraging costs. The study area was a shallow lake consisting of nine creeks, three of which were open to the public (i.e. disturbed). GUDs in creeks open or closed to the public were not significantly different. In contrast, GUNs were generally higher in creeks open to the public, after correcting for initial net energy intake rate. The results suggest that natural GUDs may not reflect the effects of disturbance in heterogeneous habitats. When environmental differences are large within a site, GUNs may be a useful alternative as a behavioural indicator.

Genetic differentiation across North America in the generalist moth Heliothis virescens and the specialist H. subflexa

The two moth species Heliothis virescens (Hv) and H. subflexa (Hs) are closely related, but have vastly different feeding habits. Hv is a generalist and an important pest in many crops in the USA, while Hs is a specialist feeding only on plants in the genus Physalis. In this study, we conducted a comparative population genetic analysis to assess whether and how generalist and specialist life styles are reflected in differences in population structures. In Hv 98% of the total variation occurred within populations. The overall differentiation (F(ST) ) between regions was 0.006 and even lower between years (0.0039) and hosts (0.0028). Analyses of population structure suggest that all individuals form one genetically homogeneous population, except for at most 12 individuals (6%) that diverged from this cluster. Population homogeneity likely results from the high mobility of Hv and its generalist feeding behaviour. Hs exhibited substantially more population structure. Even though 96% of the total variation was attributable to within-population variability, F(ST) -values between Hs populations were 10 times higher than between Hv populations. Hs populations showed significant isolation by distance. Analyses of Hs population structure suggest at least two subpopulations and thus some degree of metapopulation structure. We speculate that the patchy distribution of Physalis- the exclusive food source of Hs - contributes to differences in population structure between these closely related species. The finding that the specialist shows more population differentiation than the generalist corroborates the notion that host specialization is not an evolutionary dead end but a dynamic trait.

Effects of juvenile coral-feeding butterflyfishes on host corals

Corals provide critical settlement habitat for a wide range of coral reef fishes, particularly corallivorous butterflyfishes, which not only settle directly into live corals but also use this coral as an exclusive food source. This study examines the consequences of chronic predation by juvenile coral-feeding butterflyfishes on their specific host corals. Juvenile butterflyfishes had high levels of site fidelity for host corals with 88% (38/43) of small (<30 mm) juveniles of Chaetodon plebeius feeding exclusively from a single host colony. This highly concentrated predation had negative effects on the condition of these colonies, with tissue biomass declining with increasing predation intensity. Declines were consistent across both field observations and a controlled experiment. Coral tissue biomass declined by 26.7, 44.5 and 53.4% in low, medium and high predation intensity treatments. Similarly, a 41.7% difference in coral tissue biomass was observed between colonies that were naturally inhabited by juvenile butterflyfish compared to uninhabited control colonies. Total lipid content of host corals declined by 29–38% across all treatments including controls and was not related to predation intensity; rather, this decline coincided with the mass spawning of corals and the loss of lipid-rich eggs. Although the speed at which lost coral tissue is regenerated and the long-term consequences for growth and reproduction remain unknown, our findings indicate that predation by juvenile butterflyfishes represents a chronic stress to these coral colonies and will have negative energetic consequences for the corals used as settlement habitat.

Population growth study of the rotifer Brachionus sp. fed with triazine-exposed microalgae

Few data exist on potential toxic effects that pollutants may have on zooplankton fed microalgae exposed to pesticides. For that reason, microalgal cultures were exposed to different concentrations of the triazine herbicide terbutryn, and used as exclusive food source to Brachionus sp. females, with the aim to evaluate potential deleterious effects upon population growth, survival, reproduction and feeding of the rotifer. Chlorella vulgaris cells were able to accumulate terbutryn, removing more than 90% of the total amount of herbicide in all the exposed cultures. Growth curves of Brachionus sp. showed that population density decreased as terbutryn concentration increased in the microalgal cells. In fact, this species of rotifer did not survive beyond four days when fed with microalgae exposed to 500 nM terbutryn. Percentage of reproductive females in rotifer populations fed with terbutryn-exposed microalgae decreased significantly as herbicide concentration increased. In control cultures, reproductive females laid a maximum of three eggs per individual; whereas in 100 nM cultures, reproductive females laid only one egg per individual throughout the treatment period. Terbutryn accumulated in C. vulgaris provoked a decrease in the feeding rate of Brachionus sp. cultures fed with these microalgae with respect to control cultures. After this treatment period, all the rotifer populations, except those fed with 500 nM terbutryn-exposed microalgae, showed recovery patterns when they were returned to fresh medium containing herbicide-free microalga. Taking into account the results obtained, uptake of pesticides by phytoplankton can directly affect higher trophic levels.

Food sources for three species of Nihonotrypaea (Decapoda: Thalassinidea: Callianassidae) from western Kyushu, Japan, as determined by carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis

Three species of the callianassid genus Nihonotrypaea occur intertidally in the Ariake Sound estuarine system, southern Japan; they consist of two sandflat species ( N. japonica; N. harmandi) and one boulder-beach species ( N. petalura). Nihonotrypaea harmandi and N. petalura are distributed along the coastline in the relatively oligotrophic sea area extending from the outermost part of the sound to the open sea, while N. japonica occurs in the more eutrophic area situated at the middle part of the sound. The trophic conditions of the two areas affect the abundance of phytoplankton in the water column relative to that of benthic microalgae in the sediment. The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope compositions of N. japonica and its potential food sources have been analysed in an earlier study, specifying phytoplankton as the exclusive food source. Potential food sources for N. harmandi and N. petalura were analysed to make interspecific comparisons of the assimilated diets in relation to the shrimp habitat characteristics. Food sources of the shrimps were assessed based on the diet-tissue isotopic fractionation of N. harmandi and N. japonica ( δ 13C = 2.0‰, δ 15N = 4.0‰), which had been determined by an earlier laboratory feeding experiment. Of several potential food sources for N. harmandi and N. petalura, riverine organic matter, sewage effluents, live/detrital terrestrial plants, and seagrass were not food sources. For N. petalura, live seaweed, in particular Sargassum spp., growing on boulders and cobbles during the seaweed high-growth season, and seaweed-derived detritus buried in the sediment and live Enteromorpha compressa during the seaweed low-growth season were the most likely food sources. For N. harmandi, phytoplankton (or fresh phytoplankton-derived detritus) and benthic microalgae constituted the most likely food sources. The δ 13C value of the estimated diet for N. harmandi was higher than that for N. japonica by 0.6‰, while the δ 15N value for N. harmandi was lower by 2.6‰. The food sources for the three species of Nihonotrypaea were species-specific, depending on each habitat characteristics.

内海性浅海域の生物とその生態的機能を探る 有明海の砂質干潟における植物プランクトン食ギルドのなかの二枚貝資源―環境収容力制限仮説の提示

On extensive intertidal sandflats in Ariake Sound, the yield of the Manila clam, Ruditapes philippinarum, considerably increased in the 1970s but has remarkably decreased since the early 1980s. A survey conducted in 2004 of the individual density and distribution of the large-sized members of the macrobenthic community on a sandflat located at the mouth of the Shirakawa River in the central part of the Sound demonstrated four dominant species: two thalassinidean shrimps (Upogebia major and Nihonotrypaea japonica), which inhabit deep-reaching burrows, and two bivalves (Mactra veneriformis and R. philippinarum). In the late 1970s the Manila clam population prevailed in high densities over the entire area, while its distribution was limited to the lowest zone in 2004. By contrast, the other three species have increased their densities and distribution ranges and may have outcompeted the Manila clam through competition for habitat space. In particular, the strong bioturbating activities of the two shrimps probably havenegatively affected the abundance of the Manila clam. The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope compositions of the four species and their potential food sources were analysed in 2003, specifying phytoplankton (mainly diatoms) as the exclusive food source and suggesting that the four species belong to the same feeding guild. The wet biomass of the populations of N. japonica, U. major, M. veneriformis, and R. philippinarum (the whole body for shrimps and the soft tissues for bivalves) over the sandflat was estimated at 315 t, 110 t, 400 t, and 237 t, respectively. In conclusion, it is hypothesized that the amount of phytoplankton determines the carrying capacity for the benthic community on the sandflat, both quantities having attained their maxima in the 1970s, and (2) the subsequent increased competition for space has caused a further decline in the biomass of the Manila clam population.

Temporal and intrapopulation variation in prey choice of wintering geese determined by stable isotope analysis

1. Individual variability in prey preferences can have marked effects on many demographic parameters from individual survival and fecundity to the vital rates of entire populations. A population level response is ultimately determined by individual prey choices; however, the effect of individual dietary choice is often overlooked. 2. We determined prey choice by individual consumers, light-bellied Brent geese Branta bernicla, during the overwintering period. Two hundred and eighty-one individuals were sampled at distinct temporal points over two winters. Stable isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen for blood cells and blood plasma, from each sampled individual were measured. Isotopic ratios for potential prey items were also measured. 3. Delta15N and delta13C for blood samples were both significantly different between sample months. Generally we found a decrease in both isotopic ratios during the course of the winter. All potential prey items were also isotopically distinct. Multisource mixing models (isosource) were used to determine the range of possible contribution to the diet of individuals. 4. During early winter, diet consisted almost exclusively of sea grass Zostera spp. The level of Zostera spp. in the diet dropped until mid-winter, and was supplemented by the utilization of green algae Ulva lactuca, and Enteromorpha spp., and terrestrial grasses. Terrestrial grass comprised an increasing proportion of the diet in late winter, representing virtually the exclusive food source by April. 5. By examining intrapopulation variability in resource utilization we highlight a number of ecologically important factors not addressed by previous population level studies.

Maintaining Critical Habitat in a Heavily Managed Landscape: Effects of Power Line Corridor Management on Karner Blue Butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis) Habitat

Abstract The Karner blue butterfly (KBB) (Lycaeides melissa samuelis), a federally listed species, has historically been a component of barren and savannah ecosystems in the northeastern and midwestern United States. In New York, it now occurs primarily on managed, early‐successional sites such as power line corridors (utility rights‐of‐way) from Albany to Glens Falls. Blue lupine (Lupinus perennis), the exclusive larval food source of the KBB, has been suggested to be the most limiting factor for the butterfly within the eastern portion of its range. Power line corridor management maintains early‐successional habitats by suppressing the regrowth of woody species, creating potentially important habitat for the conservation and restoration of the KBB complex. This research compared the effects of several vegetation‐clearing methods on Blue lupine populations and associated communities of nectar species for KBB over an 8‐year period. Methods evaluated differed in intensity (annual, 4‐, or 8‐year intervals) and type (herbicide or mechanical). Blue lupine and plant community responses did not significantly differ among the treatment types applied to the power line corridors. However, Blue lupine cover, clump size, and density of stems per clump increased following the application of treatments in general. The number and cover of nectar species, total herbaceous cover, and species richness also responded positively to treatment overall. The percentage of non‐native species temporarily increased following treatment but declined to near pre‐treatment levels again as woody cover increased. Temporal changes in plant community composition were not related to management methods. The management tools assessed, mowing and herbicide application, will accomplish the goal of halting or reversing succession, maintaining critical habitat for the KBB in a landscape that provides little other suitable habitat.

Maternal Care and Obligatory Oophagy in Leptodactylus fallax: A New Reproductive Mode in Frogs

Leptodactylus fallax is an endangered frog (Leptodactylidae) found only on Montserrat and Dominica in the eastern Caribbean. Here we report the first captive breeding of this species and document a unique reproductive strategy with an unprecedented level of maternal care. Male frogs fought and dominant animals occupied a nesting burrow. Males enticed females into the burrow with a trilling bark call (100–120 calls/min). A terrestrial foam nest was produced after 9–14 h. Female frogs remained close to their foam nests and defended them aggressively throughout larval development (42–57 days). Females fed larvae (26–43 per nest) trophic (unfertilized) eggs. Many provisioning events (10–13) were recorded, supplying a total of 10,000—25,000 eggs. Male frogs also remained close to the burrow and defended the site. Trophic eggs were the exclusive food source for the developing larvae, and L. fallax is therefore probably displaying a new form of amphibian endotrophy.