Abstract In November 2018, the Appellate Court in Iceland sentenced a Greenlander to 19 years in prison for murder and drug smuggling. The drug smuggling part of its judgment includes complex questions regarding coastal state jurisdiction in the Exclusive Economic Zone ( EEZ ) of Iceland concerning law enforcement actions by the Icelandic police against a Greenlandic fishing vessel and its crew. The judgment stated that the main legislation on Icelandic maritime jurisdiction did not provide a legal basis for the arrest in question. The lack of legal basis, however, did not impact the case’s outcome. This article critically examines the Court’s reasoning and its implications for law enforcement at sea. The analysis reveals a troubling conclusion: the Icelandic authorities’ actions were not only inconsistent with national law but also in violation of international legal principles. This case serves as a striking example of the legal complexities surrounding maritime enforcement and the troubles courts are faced when addressing such issues.

Abandoned, lost and otherwise discarded fishing gear in the Caribbean SIDS of Trinidad and Tobago.

The South China Sea is a strategic region filled with complex geopolitical and geostrategic interests, particularly for Indonesia, which faces sovereignty violations in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in the North Natuna Sea. In addressing these threats, Indonesia has positioned maritime diplomacy as a strategic pillar that integrates foreign policy instruments, defense, and international law supremacy. This study aims to analyze Indonesia’s maritime diplomacy role in responding to threats in the South China Sea using a qualitative-descriptive approach based on literature studies and document analysis. The findings indicate that Indonesia’s maritime diplomacy is carried out through bilateral and multilateral diplomacy, naval diplomacy, coast guard diplomacy, and the enforcement of international law based on UNCLOS 1982. Despite facing various internal and external challenges, Indonesia's maritime diplomacy has proven effective in maintaining regional stability, strengthening Indonesia's legal position internationally, and managing conflict dynamics peacefully. This study recommends strengthening national maritime capacity, optimizing inter-agency coordination, and enhancing multilateral diplomacy to address future complex threats.

One of the main objectives of the “Program for the Assessment of the Sustainable Potential of Living Resources in the Brazilian Exclusive Economic Zone” (REVIZEE) was to produce a comprehensive inventory of benthic communities off the Brazilian coast. Holothuroid specimens collected at a depth of 246 m off the Rio de Janeiro state were donated for this study. Protankyra estevesi sp. nov. is described and illustrated herein based on morphological characters from a complete specimen and seven posterior fragments. The ossicles were examined using both optical and scanning electron microscopy. Micro-CT imaging was used to explore the calcareous ring elements in detail. The new species has eight long Polian vesicles. The main body wall ossicles consist of anchors and anchor plates, which are smaller anteriorly than posteriorly. Two types of anchor plates are found varying in size and shape. Posterior anchors are 1000 µm in size, and their arm serrations (up to 31) are occasionally discontinuous. Additional body wall ossicles include abundant C-shaped, round, and elongated miliary granules. The calcareous ring is composed of alternating five interradial and five radial pieces; dorsal pieces are shorter than ventral ones. In contrast, RIV and RV are wider than the other radials, each bearing two anterior processes, and the perforation is located in the muscle process. The new species was compared with 37 other congeners distributed worldwide. This is the first report of a deep-sea synaptid species in the southwestern Atlantic off Brazil. There is high potential for marine biodiversity investigations in the region and new species can be revealed not only in newly sampled deep-sea environments but also from studies based on material deposited in zoological collections.

Entanglement of large whales in static fishing gear, specifically in pot fisheries, is an increasing issue worldwide. This study assessed the entanglement risk of Ireland’s three most frequently observed large whales, humpback ( Megaptera novaeangliae ), minke ( Balaenoptera acutorostrata ), and fin whales ( Balaenoptera physalus ), with pot fisheries within the Irish Exclusive Economic Zone. Pot fisheries in Ireland are steadily growing, increasing the likelihood of present, and future, negative interactions with whales. An estimated 85% of the Irish pot fisheries take place within the 12-nautical mile limit, resulting in an increased vulnerability for whales distributed near the coast. This study determined the likelihood of co-occurrence of pot fisheries and large whales, identified areas and times of the year where the risk of entanglement was highest, and reports on actual entanglement cases associated with pot fisheries. Humpback and minke whales have a higher risk of entanglement off the southwest and south coasts of Ireland, while higher-risk areas for fin whales were located off the south coast. This study also identified data gaps that need to be addressed to improve future assessments and identify risk areas at a finer spatial resolution.

Offshore wind energy offers substantial potential. However, its inherent intermittency leads to the frequent occurrence of offshore wind energy droughts, which pose challenges to electricity system stability. Mitigation measures aim to reduce the number, duration, or impacts of such droughts. Among the different mitigation approaches, supply-side strategies act directly on wind power generation at the wind farm level. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of supply-side mitigation strategies remains poorly understood. This study addresses these gaps by systematically quantifying the potential of three supply-side mitigation strategies: (i) spatial diversification of wind farm locations, (ii) advances in wind turbine technology, and (iii) reductions in downtime and wake losses, to minimize the number and duration of wind energy droughts across 40 key exclusive economic zones (EEZ) worldwide. Hourly, daily, and monthly drought characteristics for both moderate and extreme offshore wind energy droughts are analyzed using wind data from the ERA5 reanalysis for the period 1993–2022. The results show that spatial diversification across multiple sub-regions is the most effective strategy for mitigating offshore wind energy droughts at the EEZ scale. In addition, the effectiveness of all mitigation strategies exhibits pronounced scale-dependent limitations, which are most evident at the monthly time scale. Overall, this study provides a robust basis for energy-policy decisions and highlights the importance of supply-side mitigation for enhancing the reliability of future electricity systems.

Cetacean diversity in the Windward Dutch Caribbean remains poorly known, with only six species previously reported in its waters. By contrast, cetacean diversity is well documented in neighbouring islands, including Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, as well as in parts of the Lesser Antilles, where 23 species are known to occur. Based on 40 days of systematic boat-based surveys conducted over five years, supplemented by opportunistic sightings, we update the information of cetacean diversity within the Exclusive Economic Zones of Saba, St. Maarten, and St. Eustatius. Each record was individually reviewed, and first-time species reports were validated through photographic evidence or confirmation by researchers with recognized expertise. A total of 124 cetacean sightings were recorded, documenting 17 species in the Windward Dutch Caribbean. These findings demonstrate that this previously understudied area harbors a cetacean diversity comparable to that of neighboring Antillean islands and provide new insights into coastal cetacean distribution in the region. This work establishes a baseline for future research and conservation planning around these islands and across the broader Northern Lesser Antilles.

The escalation of maritime realism in East Asia has driven coastal states to manipulate the characteristics of geographical features using advanced technology to expand jurisdiction, a phenomenon that has manifested in its most extreme form in the Okinotorishima dispute. This research aims to analyze the legal validity of Japan’s technological interventions to maintain Okinotorishima’s status as an island under the UNCLOS regime. Utilizing a normative legal research method within an interdisciplinary framework, this study conducts a juridical examination of Ocean City’s planning research and the mass coral propagation project (coral pegs). These technical facts are then tested dialectically using the natural condition doctrine and the jurisprudence of the 2016 PCA Award. The results show that although the concrete infrastructure and bio-engineering successfully prevent physical erosion, this success lacks legal equivalence. Such artificial modifications are considered installations that fail to meet the natural capacity requirements to sustain life, rendering the feature’s status as a “rock” not entitled to an Exclusive Economic Zone. This research identifies this practice as an Islandization strategy, a form of lawfare that uses technology to create material hegemony atop a legal legitimacy void. As a strategic implication, the research recommends that Indonesia reject such an artificial expansion model and adopt the Eco-Technological Defense paradigm. This strategy focuses on restoring the ecological functions of basepoints on outermost small islands threatened by abrasion, such as in Bengkalis and Natuna, to secure sovereignty without violating the integrity of the international law of the sea.

This article analyses future projections of ocean properties for a region of the south‐west Pacific Ocean encompassing the New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone under different climate change emission scenarios. Projections are updated and expanded from previous assessments using a “best” ensemble comprising both CMIP5 and CMIP6 earth system models. The updated projections show improved physical representations compared to previous projections based on CMIP5 models only. Contrary to the CMIP5 models alone, the new ensemble shows novel and distinct signatures associated with ocean circulation changes in the Bounty Trough that are consistent with recent observations. Previous results are extended to show how the reduced emission scenario SSP126 dampens future trajectories relative to the high emissions scenarios RCP8.5/SSP585 but does not return the end‐of‐century ocean state to that of the “present‐day” period [1976:2005]. Furthermore, analysis of archived output from three marine ecosystem models indicates that the south‐west Pacific Ocean total consumer biomass will reduce in the future, with reductions of 25%–51% by end‐of‐century under RCP8.5/SSP585 forcing. Overall, this article provides increased confidence of a substantially modified state of the southwest Pacific Ocean—physical, biogeochemical, and ecological—by end‐of‐century compared to present day.

Marine heatwaves (MHWs), discrete and prolonged periods of anomalously high ocean temperatures, have been occurring with increasing frequency and intensity in recent years, threatening global fisheries. This study employs nighttime imageries and random forest models to analyze the impacts of MHWs on Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus) nighttime fisheries in the Sea of Japan (East Sea) (2014–2023). For the first time, critical MHWs thresholds were identified: monthly duration exceeding 16 days and cumulative intensity surpassing 50 °C·days trigger significant contraction of core fishing grounds, particularly in summer/autumn, exhibiting strong negative correlations to catch and vessel numbers (|r| > 0.7, p < 0.05). Sea surface temperature (SST) is the primary driver of spatiotemporal patterns of squid fishing grounds (45% model contribution), with optimal fishing conditions at 17.08 °C. Regional MHWs sensitivity varies across exclusive economic zones (EEZs), with the South Korean EEZ responding strongest (R² = 0.77) to MHWs characteristics. This research establishes novel MHWs impact thresholds for migratory squid fisheries and provides a data-driven framework for adaptive management in semi-enclosed seas, highlighting the urgency of addressing extreme climate events in fisheries governance.

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) play a critical role in providing food security, livelihood, and employment. However, SSF have received less attention in the context of regional fisheries management and continue to be poorly understood and not well included in fishery management frameworks. The lack of understanding concerning SSF within regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) might be further exacerbated by the absence of a unified definition of SSF within RFMOs, which often undermines data collection and the general availability of information on SSF. This paper aims to trace SSF definitions within RFMO convention texts and conservation and management measures, and to develop a definition of SSF for the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, which would result in a more nuanced characterisation of fishery types. The results showed that all RFMOs lack an official definition, although SSF are mentioned in various conservation and management measures. To respond to this gap, we propose a definition of SSF, based on the overall size of the fishing vessel (<12m or 10 gross tonnage), the location of the fishing ground (e.g., within the territorial sea and exclusive economic zone), crew size (not more than 12), and the duration of the fishing trip (no more than 2 weeks). Furthermore, besides the current two fishery types, SSF and industrial, we suggest a third type - semi-industrial fisheries. This would help RFMOs close loopholes arising from the absence of a unified SSF definition, which currently enables some large-scale vessels to qualify for exemptions and protections intended for genuine SSF. Proposing a more realistic operational classification of fishery types within RFMOs would strengthen data reporting and monitoring and would lead to a more sustainable and equitable fisheries management regime.

The incident of the expulsion of a Chinese Coast Guard (CCG) vessel by Indonesian authorities in the North Natuna Sea has become a recurring phenomenon, raising complex questions about the legality of such actions under international maritime law. This study aims to analyze the legal status of CCG vessels in Indonesia's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), the legality of expulsion actions, and the legal implications of China's Coast Guard Law 2021. Using normative legal research methods with a qualitative approach, this study examines UNCLOS 1982, arbitration awards, state practices, and international legal doctrines. The results of the study show that the right to freedom of navigation of CCG vessels in the EEZ is not absolute and is limited by the obligation to pay due regard to the sovereign rights of coastal states. The expulsion action carried out by Indonesia, as long as it is proportionate and non-escalatory, can be justified as a legitimate countermeasure to protect its sovereign rights from illegal intervention. Further, the study found that China's Coast Guard Law 2021 is fundamentally contrary to UNCLOS, seeks to replace international law with domestic legislation, and significantly increases the risk of conflict escalation in the region. The study concludes that while Indonesia's actions can be legally justified, the international maritime law framework now faces systemic challenges that threaten regional maritime stability.

ABSTRACT Aim A key element of the Global Biodiversity Framework Target 3 is ‘representativity’, which refers to the inclusion of the full range of existing ecosystems, ecological processes and regions within protected areas, with the aim of ensuring that the full spectrum of biodiversity is protected. Here we use the New Zealand Seafloor Community Classification (NZSCC), which depicts compositional turnover of 1716 taxa (demersal fish, reef fish, benthic invertebrates and macroalgae) classified in 75 groups representing seafloor communities, and the conservation planning software Zonation to explore how representativity of benthic communities could be enhanced across spatial management areas (including protected areas) in New Zealand's marine environment. Location New Zealand Exclusive Economic Zone. Methods 154 Spatial layers derived from the NZSSC depicting within‐ and between‐ group similarity/dissimilarity and taxonomic richness, representing beta and alpha diversity respectively, are used to explore scenarios to provide an optimal expansion of the current network of spatial management areas. Results Results indicate that a relatively small increase in spatial protection (1.5%) to the existing spatial management network can result in large increases in the representativity of all NZSCC groups, including 46 groups (out of 75) currently underrepresented. Main Conclusions The use of within‐ and between‐group similarity/dissimilarity is a significant improvement on spatial prioritisation processes that consider groups within benthic classifications to be homogenous. These results provide a solid base for informing the development of improved future protection measures within New Zealand that can meaningfully contribute to the representativity element of the Global Biodiversity Framework Target 3, and the approach presented here can be applied to other regions.

Purpose The oceans play a vital role in regulating the Earth’s climate and supporting life, but ocean pollution is increasingly endangering marine ecosystems. The purpose of this study is to address the growing issue of microplastic contamination in oceans, particularly in the Indian Ocean, highlighting its sources, environmental and biological impacts and methods of identification and characterisation. This study also examines the influence of exclusive economic zones (EEZs) on this contamination. Design/methodology/approach This paper comprehensively reviews current literature on microplastic sources and their impacts. It also incorporates experimental investigations that demonstrate polymer fragmentation and degradation in saltwater environments to provide practical insights into the behaviour of microplastics in marine settings. Findings Microplastic contamination is a severe issue with profound implications for marine life and ecosystems. This study identifies key sources of microplastics, such as waste mismanagement and industrial activities, and emphasises the significant contribution of EEZ activities to contamination in the Indian Ocean. Experiments presented in this article reveal important details about the degradation behaviour of polymers in saltwater conditions. Originality/value This paper provides a focused exploration of microplastic contamination in the Indian Ocean, an area often overlooked in global studies. By integrating experimental data with a review of the EEZ’s role, this study offers valuable insights into regional pollution dynamics and practical approaches to understanding microplastic behaviour in marine environments. Unlike most global reviews, this paper uniquely integrates experimental insights on the degradation behaviour of polyamides in saltwater with a policy-oriented discussion of the Indian Ocean’s EEZs. This dual focus on underexplored regional waters and polymer-specific degradation mechanisms makes this study distinctive and valuable for both environmental science and marine policy communities.

The problem regarding the interpretation of the meaning of imprisonment and corporal punishment as stated in Article 73 paragraph (3) of UNCLOS 1982 has caused differences in judges' decisions against perpetrators of IUU Fishing in the Indonesian Exclusive Economic Zone (ZEEI). On the one hand, there are courts that explain that confinement in lieu of a fine is contrary to UNCLOS 1982, while on the other hand it is said that it does not violate UNCLOS 1982. This study was conducted to provide a legal study of whether the imposition of confinement in lieu of a fine on perpetrators of IUU Fishing in ZEEI. The results of this study, namely according to the interpretation of grammatical and the meaning of words/terms (taalkundige interpretation) and the explanation of legal experts, can be concluded that imprisonment and confinement (including confinement in lieu of a fine) are included in the scope of the prohibition of Article 73 paragraph (3) of UNCLOS 1982, because this punishment eliminates a person's freedom. Courts in Indonesia should be consistent not implementing imprisonment and corporal punishment considering that Indonesia has ratified UNCLOS 1982 and is bound by the principle of pacta sunt servanda. This paper provides proposals to amend the Fisheries Law and Judges are also encouraged to make independent legal discoveries to create substitute criminal sanctions for fines that do not conflict with UNCLOS 1982.

The marine environment in the South Pacific Island Countries (SPICs) is sensitive and vulnerable to climate change. While large-scale changes in this region are well-documented, national-scale analyses that address management needs remain limited. This study evaluated the performance of satellite-derived datasets—including sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface salinity (SSS), Secchi disk depth (SDD), chlorophyll-a (Chl-a), net primary production (NPP), and sea level anomaly (SLA)—against in situ observations, and analyzed their spatial and temporal variability across 12 national Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) during 1998–2023. Validation results presented that current satellite datasets could provide applicable information for EEZ-scale analyses. In the past decades, the SPICs experienced a general increase in SST and SLA, accompanied by marked within-EEZ heterogeneity in Chl-a and NPP variations, with Papua New Guinea exhibiting the largest within-EEZ inter-annual variability. In addition to monitoring, satellite data would help to constrain the uncertainty of CMIP6 results in the SPICs, subject to the accuracy of specific products. By 2100, Nauru might experience the most vulnerable EEZ, while the marine environment in the French Polynesian EEZ can keep relatively stable among all 12 EEZs. Meanwhile, CMIP6 projections in the Southeastern EEZs are more sensitive to satellite-based constraints, showing pronounced adjustments. Our results demonstrate the potential of combining validated satellite data with CMIP6 models to provide national-scale decision support for climate adaptation and marine resource management in the SPICs.

ABSTRACT Monitoring vessel activity within Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) is essential for maritime security, environmental protection, and sustainable resource management. This study presents a novel framework that combines high‐resolution aerial imagery, photogrammetric geolocation techniques, and deep learning–based object detection to detect and monitor vessels near maritime boundaries. Using the SeaDronesSee dataset, vessels are automatically detected with YOLOv8 and georeferenced through image metadata, enabling accurate transformation from image to geographic coordinates. Spatial queries with EEZ boundary datasets are then applied to identify potential violations. Experimental evaluation demonstrates a detection accuracy of 98.3%, with robust performance across varied vessel types and imaging conditions. The framework is further supported by a lightweight security layer to ensure reliable transmission of boundary violation alerts. This integration of photogrammetric image analysis, automated object detection, and geospatial boundary validation provides an efficient and scalable approach to maritime monitoring, contributing to the advancement of remote sensing and photogrammetric applications in marine surveillance.

The importance of fisheries in the Arctic region is on the increase as climate change results in natural resources, both biological and non-biological, becoming more accessible. Catching snow crab, which is a non-native species in the Barents Sea, has contributed to an ongoing dispute between Norway, the European Union and some other states on the status of the waters surrounding the archipelago of Svalbard and fishing rights. Disagreements among the affected states over the management of the vast ocean areas surrounding Svalbard are mainly legally grounded in a dispute over the interpretation of the Svalbard Treaty (1920) and its interrelation with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982). A question at the heart of this dispute is the extent of the rights of states to manage natural resources, especially considering developments in the international law of the sea with innovative concepts such as exclusive economic zones and the continental shelfs. This chapter examines how both international treaties apply to these complicated issues, which are at the same time impacting Arctic governance as such. The chapter links challenges identified within this legal framework with the deeper impact on the fragile Arctic environment, including the Barents Sea’s benthic ecosystem. While the right to catch snow crab may be perceived as a relatively “minor issue”, it well illustrates the complexity of the governance of the Arctic marine environment. Disputes over catching snow crab serve as a precursor of broader challenges relating to the exploration and exploitation of both living (fisheries) and non-living (oil, gas, rare earth metals) natural resources. There are wider practical consequences since the outcome of the “snow crab dispute” affects the equal access to other, arguably more profitable natural resources, including the reserves of hydrocarbons in the same waters.

Abstract Limiting global temperature rise below 2°C requires significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and likely large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR). This study assesses the CO2 sequestration and efficacy of two CDR approaches, Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement (OAE), applied individually and in combination. Using the Norwegian Earth System Model (NorESM2-LM), simulations were designed to ramp up deployment of BECCS and OAE, to an additional area of 5.2 million km² by 2100 for bioenergy feedstock for BECCS, and a CaO deployment rate of approximately 2.7 Gt/year for OAE within the exclusive economic zones of Europe, the United States and China. The combined land-ocean CDR simulation revealed a largely additive carbon removal effect. Over 2030-2100, OAE sequestered 7 ppm of CO 22 with an accumulated 82.3 Gt CaO, achieving a CDR effectiveness of 0.08 ppm (~ 0.17 PgC) per Gt CaO, while BECCS reduced 16 ppm of CO2, with CDR effectiveness of 3.1 ppm per million km² of bioenergy crops. Together, the carbon removal achieved by BECCS and OAE corresponds to anthropogenic CO₂ emissions of 5.4 Gt CO₂/year by 2100, slightly more than 60% of current global transport sector emissions. Notably, the efficiency of BECCS and OAE alone was unaffected by their concurrent deployment. Nevertheless, simulations revealed distinct non- linear interactions, such as declines in land and soil carbon sinks in the combined scenario. Furthermore, all simulations show negligible effects on the global annual mean temperature. These results highlight near-additive CDR responses even under net-negative emissions, but feedback on land and ocean carbon sinks must be considered when designing CDR portfolios. This study provides new insights into CDR portfolio design and Earth system feedback under an overshoot scenario, highlighting both their potential and the need for continued emissions cuts and supportive policies.

This article explores the potential of a Lusophone Maritime Spatial Data Infrastructure (LMSDI) to enhance geospatial cooperation among Portuguese-speaking countries. Grounded in bibliographic and documentary analysis, the study examines how shared oceanic heritage and spatial data interoperability can support marine governance across the CPLP. It proposes the development of a Lusophone Geoportal for monitoring Exclusive Economic Zones, promoting environmental enforcement, and advancing the blue economy through digital integration and multilateral collaboration.