Exclusionary Discipline Practices Research Articles

How Do Staff Perceive Schoolwide Positive Behavior Supports? Implications for Teams in Planning and Implementing Schools

Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS) offers an alternative to reactive and exclusionary school discipline practices. However, the shift to SWPBS requires substantial change in the practices of staff, and many leadership teams struggle to rally staff support for implementation. With a more thorough understanding of staff perceptions, level of understanding, and support for SWPBS, teams may be better positioned to assist staff in the change process. To achieve an understanding of staff perceptions and how they may differ in schools on the basis of level of implementation, the authors directly assessed staff perceptions in seven planning schools and seven implementing schools. Significant differences were found between planning and implementing schools in knowledge of SWPBS, as well as perceptions of behavior and discipline.

Suspending Progress

An influential literature in criminology has identified indirect “collateral consequences” of mass imprisonment. We extend this criminological perspective to the context of the U.S. education system, conceptualizing exclusionary discipline practices (i.e., out-of-school suspension) as a manifestation of intensified social control in schools. Similar to patterns of family and community decline associated with mass incarceration, we theorize that exclusionary discipline policies have indirect adverse effects on non-suspended students in punitive schools. Using a large hierarchical and longitudinal dataset consisting of student and school records, we examine the effect of suspension on reading and math achievement. Our findings suggest that higher levels of exclusionary discipline within schools over time generate collateral damage, negatively affecting the academic achievement of non-suspended students in punitive contexts. This effect is strongest in schools with high levels of exclusionary discipline and schools with low levels of violence, although the adverse effect of exclusionary discipline is evident in even the most disorganized and hostile school environments. Our results level a strong argument against excessively punitive school policies and suggest the need for alternative means of establishing a disciplined environment through social integration.

Systematically Addressing Discipline Disproportionality Through the Application of a School-Wide Framework

The disproportionate representation of culturally and linguistically diverse students in exclusionary discipline practices is a well-documented practice in education. This paper synthesizes current literature that points to a cultural incongruence between students and teachers as an underlying mechanism for disparity in school practices involving the application of disciplinary strategies. Culturally responsive School-Wide Positive Behavior Interventions and Support (SW-PBIS) is explored as a potential approach for reducing the discrepancy in application of disciplinary policies and practices. Prominent suggestions from literature in culturally responsive pedagogy and behavior management are described through the systems framework of SW-PBIS.

Connecticut's Comprehensive Approach to Reducing In‐School Arrests: Changes in Statewide Policy, Systems Coordination and School Practices

Despite decreases in school violence over the past two decades, in‐school arrest rates are on the rise. This growing trend of school arrests is attributed in part to an increase in zero‐tolerance policies for disruptive behavior and exclusionary discipline practices such as suspensions, expulsions, and the involvement of law enforcement in school discipline matters. This article describes recent advancements made toward reducing the rates of in‐school arrests in the state of Connecticut through juvenile justice policy reform, advocacy and systems coordination efforts, and changes to school practice and policy from an interdisciplinary collaborative approach.Keypoints Change happened because stakeholders were able to work together across systems. Getting solid data was essential to defining the problem and to showing results. Model memoranda of agreement helped define the role of police in schools. The Judicial Branch began using discretion to push back unnecessary arrests. Mental health professionals offered teachers training on behavioral health and connected schools to community resources. The effort to reduce student arrests gained traction in Connecticut coming on the heels of other successful juvenile justice reforms. Whenever we get a “win,” we should look for an opportunity to build on it.

Making the Grade

Academic failure and exclusionary discipline practices are key elements in what has been described as the “school to prison pipeline.” While there exists a strong body of research on the risks for delinquency, few studies have addressed the variables within schools that exacerbate or counteract these risks. We examined the academic pathways in English/Language Arts (E/LA) of a group of students recommended for expulsion in one school district, including students with and without disabilities. We obtained the letter grades that students received and the statewide assessment (SWA) results from elementary through high school for 81 participants who were recommended for expulsion in high school. Multiple t tests demonstrated that overall, students’ performance decreased as they progressed through school and students’ SWA scores differed considerably from course performance grades in elementary school. We discuss the results in terms of implications and recommendations for improving the educational pathways of students at risk of school expulsion.

How Teachers Use Power in the Classroom to Avoid or Support Exclusionary School Discipline Practices

This study explored the relation between classroom interactions and exclusionary school discipline practices within and across four classrooms in a disciplinary alternative school. Critical social practice theory and critical microethnographic methodology supported the examination, interpretation, and analysis of interactive power to illuminate ways of transforming exclusionary school discipline practices. Data showed that exclusionary school discipline practices are mediated through power relations with insights into and implications for transforming exclusionary school discipline practices found in teachers’ discipline goals, ideology, and views of culture.

Exclusionary Discipline Practices Across Students' Racial/Ethnic Backgrounds and Disability Status: Findings from the Pacific Northwest

We examined 2009-2010 data on exclusionary discipline practices from one state in the Pacific Northwest of the United States across students' racial/ ethnic backgrounds and disability status. Our focus was on proportionate representation in exclusionary discipline actions and in the duration of those disciplinary actions. Descriptive outcomes indicated that among students with disability American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) students were over-represented in removal to alternative education. Among students without a disability, Hispanic students were most notably over-represented in all exclusionary discipline practices. African-American students with and without disability lost approximately twice as many days as White students to exclusionary discipline. Follow-up Chi-Square tests showed that non-White students were statistically significantly over-represented in most exclusionary practices. ANOVA results indicated that both disability status and race significantly impacted the duration of exclusions. Recommendations for future research are provided.

Call to Action: A Critical Need for Designing Alternatives to Suspension and Expulsion

This study presents the findings of a content analysis of 120 high school-level, written discipline policies collected from six states. Suspension was commonly offered as a response for all behaviors, including minor ones. Discipline policies varied by state in terms of the degree to which suspension was featured. Based on these findings and related literature, it is argued that a call to action is needed to address the long-standing punitive nature of school discipline. Two recommendations are offered for schools to engage in as part of a process to overhaul school discipline: (a) review and alter discipline policies so they contain alternatives to traditional school suspension, and (b) implement and evaluate proactive alternatives to suspension to build a database of evidence-based options that could replace exclusionary discipline practices.

Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls: Implications for Urban Educational Stakeholders

There is a large body of research examining the discipline experiences of Black males (Lewis et al. in Souls: A Critical Journey of Black Politics, Culture, and Society,2009; Skiba et al. in The Urban Review, 34, 317–348, 2002); however, less is known about the types of behavioral infractions Black female students exhibit and the discipline sanctions imposed for Black girls for such infractions. As a result, the purpose of this study is to examine the type of discipline infractions exhibited by Black female students enrolled in an urban school district and to explore whether the pattern of discipline infractions and sanctions imposed for Black girls disproportionately differs from all female students, but more specifically White and Hispanic females. Results suggest that Black girls are overrepresented in exclusionary discipline practices and Black girls reason for discipline referrals differs significantly from White and Hispanic girls. Based on these findings, recommendations are provided for urban educational stakeholders.

Office Disciplinary Referrals in an Urban Elementary School

Office disciplinary referrals can be a useful index for assessing students’ discipline problems as well as designing and evaluating school discipline practices. In this paper, we examined disciplinary referral data compiled from an urban elementary school (majority African American) in a midwestern city over a 2-year period. Evident issues included the patterns of disciplinary referrals, the types of infractions and the administrative actions taken in response to the reported offenses, the characteristics of referred students relative to gender and ethnicity, and the effects of exclusionary discipline practices in the form of suspensions. Data for students who remained in the school for 2 years were also examined to further determine the possible impact of staff factors, in addition to students’ behaviors, on the disciplinary referrals. We discuss the potential impact of disciplinary referrals as applied in this school and the special implications for African American males.

Breaking the School to Prison Pipeline: Identifying School Risk and Protective Factors for Youth Delinquency

Academic failure, exclusionary discipline practices, and dropout have been identified as key elements in a "school to prison pipeline." Although a strong body of research exists on the risks for delinquency, few studies have attempted to understand the variables within schools that exacerbate or counteract these risks. We conducted three multimethod studies that examined three school characteristics related to delinquency-academic failure, suspension, and dropout-at the elementary, middle, and high school levels respectively. We compared schools that were high performing with those that were low performing with respect to each of these characteristics. Our results suggest that school-level characteristics can help minimize the risks for youth delinquency. The majority of court-involved youth have experienced academic failure, school exclusion, and dropout. Our findings, in conjunction with those of other researchers, identified school-based policies and practices that may exacerbate or mitigate the risks for court involvement among youth. The results of our studies suggest that such school-level characteristics as supportive leadership, dedicated and collegial staff, schoolwide behavior management, and effective academic instruction can help minimize the risks for youth delinquency. Specific examples are provided from schools involved in these studies, in which positive school characteristics were evident. Implications and recommendations are offered for schools and school districts that wish to implement strategies that potentially protect students from the risks for delinquency.

The Disproportionate Discipline of African American Learners: Reducing School Suspensions and Expulsions

School disciplinary practices for students with disabilities and their peers without disabilities have long been questioned. Moreover, the school discipline of both dominant culture and ethnic minority children and youth has raised concerns. In that regard school discipline has in general become a hotbed for litigation and debate. While suspect discipline practices have been used with students across ethnic backgrounds, they are disproportionately meted out to African American students, particularly males (Harry & Anderson, 1995). This article examines exclusionary discipline practices and their impact on African American students. Culturally responsive instructional and management strategies are identified that can mitigate school suspensions and expulsions of African American children and youth.

Current disciplinary practices with handicapped students: suspensions and expulsions.

Several exclusionary discipline practices used with handicapped learners, including in-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, and explusion, are described. A school discipline survey was mailed to 371 principals in 18 randomly selected states representing the 9 U.S. Census districts. Results indicated differential uses of the exclusionary disciplinary practices. Descriptions of the use of these disciplinary practices across general, demographic, and behavioral variables are provided and discussed. Further research directions and instructional implications are also discussed.