Excessive Water Use Research Articles

How downstream sub-basins depend on upstream inflows to avoid scarcity: typology and global analysis of transboundary rivers

Abstract. Countries sharing river basins are often dependent upon water originating outside their boundaries; meaning that without that upstream water, water scarcity may occur with flow-on implications for water use and management. We develop a formalisation of this concept drawing on ideas about the transition between regimes from resilience literature, using water stress and water shortage as indicators of water scarcity. In our analytical framework, dependency occurs if water from upstream is needed to avoid scarcity. This can be diagnosed by comparing different types of water availability on which a sub-basin relies, in particular local runoff and upstream inflows. At the same time, possible upstream water withdrawals reduce available water downstream, influencing the latter water availability. By developing a framework of scarcity and dependency, we contribute to the understanding of transitions between system regimes. We apply our analytical framework to global transboundary river basins at the scale of sub-basin areas (SBAs). Our results show that 1175 million people live under water stress (42 % of the total transboundary population). Surprisingly, the majority (1150 million) of these currently suffer from stress only due to their own excessive water use and possible water from upstream does not have impact on the stress status – i.e. they are not yet dependent on upstream water to avoid stress – but could still impact on the intensity of the stress. At the same time, 386 million people (14 %) live in SBAs that can avoid stress owing to available water from upstream and have thus upstream dependency. In the case of water shortage, 306 million people (11 %) live in SBAs dependent on upstream water to avoid possible shortage. The identification of transitions between system regimes sheds light on how SBAs may be affected in the future, potentially contributing to further refined analysis of inter- and intrabasin hydro-political power relations and strategic planning of management practices in transboundary basins.

Drip irrigation scheduling for container grown trees based on plant water status

In typical ornamental nurseries, irrigation schedules are frequently established subjectively, often resulting in excessive water use and significant fertilizer leaching. Using stem psychrometers to directly measure plant water status (PWS), the relationship between water stress, prevailing environmental conditions, and species-specific stress-tolerance thresholds was characterized. Irrigation-scheduling based on predicted plant water status thresholds correlated to cumulative daily environmental conditions (i.e., cumulative vapour-pressure deficit) were tested on Serviceberry (Amelanchier laevis) grown in a drip irrigated pot-in-pot production system. Three irrigation treatments were applied: (1) conventional practice (control), (2) moderate restriction/stress, and (3) high restriction/stress. The moderate and high treatments reduced water consumption by 46 and 63%, respectively. Trees within the control and moderate irrigation treatments did not differ in stem caliper, while trees within the high stress treatment trees grew slower but otherwise appeared healthy. This study demonstrated that irrigation schedules based on predicted PWS thresholds significantly reduced water use without impacting plant growth and quality.

Are natural dyes eco-friendly? A case study on water usage and wastewater characteristics of batik production by natural dyes application

The pollution caused by the highly colored synthetic dyes and an excessive use of water by batik home-based industries has been arising a problem of water scarcity. Therefore, recently some batik entrepreneurs have started to use natural dyes for batik dyeing as natural dyes are considered to be eco-friendly. However, studies regarding the environmental aspect of natural dye application are very limited. Hence, this research aimed to examine the efficiency of water usage by batik industry and the characteristics of batik wastewater containing natural dye extract. The result showed that the industry used water in a volume of 17.93 L per piece of batik cloth, where most of the water was mainly used for washing process. Although it is considered to be efficient in comparison to the benchmark, the use of water for batik production could be reduced. Other results showed that the concentration of TSS, BOD5, COD exceeded the Quality Standard for Textile Effluent set by The World Bank. Although natural dyes were found to be biodegradable, the BOD5/COD ratio implies that the wastewater was not subjected to biodegradation. Moreover, accumulation of pollutant was found to cause adverse impact to the aquatic system in the form of eutrophication. Although wastewater treatment is needed, education on water issues to local community and batik entrepreneurs, water conservation planning and practices, and environmental impact assessment are required to achieve a more sustainable water use by the cooperation among the government, local community, batik entrepreneurs, university, and Non-Governmental Organizations.

A study of Bangladesh's sub-surface water storages using satellite products and data assimilation scheme

Climate change can significantly influence terrestrial water changes around the world particularly in places that have been proven to be more vulnerable such as Bangladesh. In the past few decades, climate impacts, together with those of excessive human water use have changed the country's water availability structure. In this study, we use multi-mission remotely sensed measurements along with a hydrological model to separately analyze groundwater and soil moisture variations for the period 2003–2013, and their interactions with rainfall in Bangladesh. To improve the model's estimates of water storages, terrestrial water storage (TWS) data obtained from the Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission are assimilated into the World-Wide Water Resources Assessment (W3RA) model using the ensemble-based sequential technique of the Square Root Analysis (SQRA) filter. We investigate the capability of the data assimilation approach to use a non-regional hydrological model for a regional case study. Based on these estimates, we investigate relationships between the model derived sub-surface water storage changes and remotely sensed precipitations, as well as altimetry-derived river level variations in Bangladesh by applying the empirical mode decomposition (EMD) method. A larger correlation is found between river level heights and rainfalls (78% on average) in comparison to groundwater storage variations and rainfalls (57% on average). The results indicate a significant decline in groundwater storage (∼32% reduction) for Bangladesh between 2003 and 2013, which is equivalent to an average rate of 8.73 ± 2.45mm/year.

Water Efficient Alternative Crops for Sustainable Agriculture along the Tarim Basin: A Comparison of the Economic Potentials of Apocynum pictum, Chinese Red Date and Cotton in Xinjiang, China

This study explores a paradigm of sustainable land use in the oases along the Tarim River of northwest China, where a fragile, semi-arid riparian ecosystem is being damaged by excessive land and water use for agriculture, especially for the growing of cotton. The reliance of agriculture on water-demanding cash crops in this region poses a grave threat to survival of the natural Tugai vegetation in the area and to the long-term sustainability of the region. We explored the hypothesis that the species Apocynum pictum (A. pictum), known as Lop-Kendir by locals, and the Chinese red date (Zyzyphus jujube) may act as sustainable crop substitutes for the region, thereby replacing the widely distributed cash crop of cotton that has high water demands. Therefore, we investigated current utilization and cost-revenue structure of these two alternative plants and compared the results to cotton. Three natural resource management types of A. pictum were both identified in the wild and cultivation, with cost-revenue analysis carried out for each. The results show that all three types of institutional arrangements of natural resources, which are namely open access, ranching and farming, were present in our study and at various levels for A. pictum. A. pictum farming costs 16,250.25 yuan/ha, generates 49,014.45 yuan/ha of revenue from raw materials and brings a profit of 32,764.2 yuan/ha, which is the highest of all three cash crops compared. The Chinese government encourages Chinese red date plantations with a “Grain for green” campaign in the Tarim Basin with this plant being more profitable than cotton, which could serve to diversify the region’s agriculture. We conclude that A. pictum offers opportunities for the restoration of vegetation in riparian ecosystems on salinized sites under the arid conditions of the Tarim Basin. Furthermore, it can serve as a viable land-use alternative to cotton for cash crop agriculture, as it may generate a certain income in the form of tea and fibers as well as fodder for livestock.

NIWM: non-intrusive water monitoring to uncover heat energy use in households

In Europe and the US, hot water use accounts for 13–18% of the average home’s energy consumption, compared to just 4 and 6% for lighting and cooking, respectively. As water heating mostly relies on oil, gas, and electricity, hot water use has been identified as an important target of many carbon reduction programs. We propose and describe a system that—comparable to non-intrusive load monitoring for electricity—disaggregates water extractions from a central metering device. The system can be used to provide consumption feedback, feed information into energy management systems, and can help to identify excessive water and energy use. The system relies on event-detection techniques and adapted Random Forest classifiers. We have tested and validated the system in two households over four months. The system was able to detect 85% of the extraction events which we then classify (“Dishwasher”, “Shower”, “Tap”, “Toilet”, and “Washing machine”). Random Forest achieves an F-measure between 71 and 91%. The area under the curve is above 0.9 for each appliance. We conclude that appliances are predicted reliably.

Effects of excessive irrigation of date palm on soil salinization, shallow groundwater properties, and water use in a Saharan oasis

In arid oases, soil salinity and a rise in shallow groundwater are serious threats to long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Understanding the impacts of irrigation practices on soil salinity and shallow groundwater dynamics is critical for improving soil conditions and water efficiency. In this study, the impacts of excessive irrigation of date palms with low-quality water on soil salinization and shallow groundwater properties (depth and electrical conductivity) were evaluated for a 10-year period (2005–2015) in a Saharan Tunisian oasis. The study included three phases: (1) assessment of the suitability of groundwater for irrigating date palms; (2) quantification of the long-term water use of date palm plantations; and (3) quantification of dynamic patterns of soil electrical conductivity and shallow saline groundwater in the studied oasis for a 10-year period (2005–2015). Results of this study indicated that under high evapotranspiration conditions, the identified low-quality water resources (leading to high soil salinization risk) coupled with rapidly rising shallow groundwater at critical depths (<1.5 m) (resulting from the high water use) were key factors of the rapid increase in soil salinization within the oasis. The soil electrical conductivity built up to levels that exceeded the salt tolerance of date palms, estimated at 4 dS m−1. Although the excessive use of irrigation water dilutes the groundwater, and its salinity decreases, the risk of increasing soil salinity is greater because of rising water table.

Farm Level Assessment of Irrigation Performance for Dairy Pastures in the Goulburn-Murray District of Australia by Combining Satellite-Based Measures with Weather and Water Delivery Information

Pasture performance of 924 dairy farms in a major irrigation district of Australia was investigated for their water use and water productivity during the 2015-2016 summer which was the peak irrigation period. Using satellite images from Landsat-8 and Sentinel-2, estimates of crop coefficient (Kc) were determined on the basis of a strong linear relationship between crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and vegetation index (NDVI) of pasture in the region. Utilizing estimates of Kc and crop water requirement (CWR), NDVI-dependent estimates of Irrigation Water Requirement (IWR) were derived based on the soil water balance model. In combination with daily weather information and seasonal irrigation water supply records, IWR was the key component in the understanding of current irrigation status at farm level, and deriving two irrigation performance indicators: (1) Relative Irrigation Water Use (RIWU) and (2) Total Irrigation Water Productivity (TIWP). A slightly higher proportion of farm irrigators were found to be either matching the irrigation requirement or under-watering (RIWU ≤ 1.0). According to TIWP, a few dairy farms (3%) were found to be in the category of high yield potential with excess water use, and very few (1%) in the category of limited water supply to pastures of high yield potential. A relatively high number of farms were found to be in the category where excess water was supplied to pastures of low-medium yield potential (27%), and farms where water supply compromised pastures with a sub-maximal vegetation status (15%). The results of this study will assist in objectively identifying where significant improvement in efficient irrigation water use can be achieved.

Patterns of soil contamination, erosion and river loading of metals in a gold mining region of northern Mongolia

Mining has become one of the main causes of increased heavy metal loading of river systems throughout the world. There is however an evident gap between assessments of soil contamination and metal release at the mined sites and estimates of river pollution. The present work focuses on Zaamar Goldfield, which is one of the largest placer gold mines in the world, located along the Tuul River, Mongolia, which ultimately drains into Lake Baikal, Russia. It combines field observations in the river basin with soil erosion modelling and aims at quantifying the contribution from natural erosion of metal-rich soil to observed increases in mass flows of metals along the Tuul River. Results show that the sediment delivery from the mining area to the Tuul River is considerably higher than the possible contribution from natural soil erosion. This is primarily due to excessive mining-related water use creating turbid wastewaters, disturbed filtering functions of deposition areas (natural sediment traps) close to the river and disturbances from infrastructures such as roads. Furthermore, relative to background levels, soils within Zaamar Goldfield contained elevated concentrations of As, Sr, Mn,V, Ni, Cu and Cr. The enhanced soil loss caused by mining-related activities can also explain observed, considerable increases in mass flows of metals in the Tuul River. The present example from Tuul River may provide useful new insights regarding the erosion and geomorphic evolution of mined areas, as well as the associated delivery of metals into stream networks.

Caught on camera, posted online: mediated moralities, visual politics and the case of urban ‘drought-shaming’

The ‘shaming’ of subjects caught on camera, engaging in socially transgressive acts of varying kinds, has become a familiar occurrence and locus of ambivalent possibility in contemporary public culture. In this article, I theorise the socio-moral complexities and visual politics of ostensibly civic forms of online shaming through an in-depth analysis of a single case: urban ‘drought-shaming’ in California (2014–2015). Drawing on interpretive methods of social analysis and anchored by the classical sociological tradition, I highlight the role of images, especially the circulation of still photographs taken and posted by ordinary members, in the emerging problematisation of excessive water use at the centre of this case. Understood as a vital and diminishing resource within an interconnected and interdependent social order, water was made sacred; it was prohibited from being handled in mundane or carelessly reckless ways during the drought. A state-of-emergency came to be constituted (also) as a moral drama. The language and practices constitutive of drought-shaming, I argue, contributed to a popular sociological imagination of water use whose critical dimensions transcend the specificities of this case. To highlight its ritual structure within the context of a viable and organically solidaristic collective order, I compare online civic shaming with the ‘status degradation ceremony’, as theorised by Harold Garfinkel in the 1950s. Comparable in that it constitutes a new form of public denunciation with socially integrative and renewing possibilities, there are also differences that shed light onto some of the new and defining elements of public shaming in a digitally convergent, visually mediated, and (more) participatory media-sphere. Finally, revealing significant overlap and collaboration between social, news, and tabloid media in the social production of mediated shaming today, this study is located at the border of visual sociology and a critical sociology of visual representation in contemporary mediated society.

MANFACTURING A TOMATO SEED EXTRCATING MACHINE

Manual extraction of tomato seed is a tedious operation and has some drawbacks such as incentive labor, excessive water use and much time consuming. Therefore, this study was dedicated to address the problems of manual extraction via manufacturing a simple machine to extract tomato seeds. Some of physical and mechanical properties of tomato fruits and seeds were measured. After that, an electric-motor powered machine was fabricated and followed by a techno-economic to investigate the potential effects of the machine operating parameters, namely, separating drum speed, feeding rate and drum with holes diameter on the machine evaluative criteria, namely, extractor productivity, extractor efficiency, seed purity, seed losses percentage and specific energy consumption. The analysis of data showed running the machine at the drum speed of 15.71 m/s (600 rpm), feeding the machine with 150 kg/h of tomato fruits and selecting the drum with holes diameter of 5 mm attained the following results to operate the developed machine economically: extractor productivity (9.12 kg/h), extractor efficiency (96.80%), seed purity (92%), seed losses percentage (3.20%) and specific energy requirement (0.042 kW.h/kg). Germination tests proved that the mechanical extraction of seeds did not harm the germinabilty of seeds as compared to the manual method. Lastly, the cost of manual process rose by about 42 and 182 % in comparison with the cost of mechanical system before and after discounting pulp tomato revenue, respectively.

Evaluation of minor irrigation schemes using performance indicators: case studies from South India

Food security challenge in India can be addressed to a considerable extent by improving the performance of irrigation systems. Two minor irrigation schemes in the Kozhikode district of Kerala in South India, namely, Kanniparamba and Vellannur, were assessed for their performance in terms of technical and social components. Water availability constraint in crop growth does not exist, as denoted by the high Relative Water Supply values. Irrigation delivery service in Vellannur is better, compared to Kanniparamba, when their relative irrigation supply values are taken into account. The canal system in Vellannur scheme also shows better maintenance, and hence, conveys water more effectively to the farms. Opportunity for saving water exists in the schemes through careful operation of the system and planning the water delivery by considering effective rainfall and crop water requirements. The relevance of initiating farmer participatory activities for management/distribution of the required quantity of water for crops to enable farmers to change from the practice of excess water use and for better water management is evident. This can be achieved by introducing suitable measures to institutionalize farmers’ participation under the minor irrigation schemes, which do not presently exist under the minor irrigation sector in Kerala State of India.

Assessment of sanitation efficacy against Escherichia coli O157:H7 by rapid measurement of intracellular oxidative stress, membrane damage or glucose active uptake

To reduce cross contamination with foodborne pathogens during washing procedures, sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are widely used in the fresh produce industry. To ensure food safety and minimize excessive use of sanitizers and water during sanitation, it is critical to develop a rapid method to assess sanitation efficacy. This study examines the potential for employing oxidative stress, membrane damage and glucose uptake measurements to assess the antimicrobial efficacy of NaOCl (0–70.4 ppm) and H2O2 (0–1.6% v/v) toward Escherichia coli O157:H7. The relative amount of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured using Aminophenyl fluorescein (APF) and 2′,7′- dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA) for cells treated with NaOCl and H2O2 respectively. Results from these ROS sensitive probes revealed a limited correlation between these oxidative stress measurements and inactivation of bacteria measured using the plate counting method. Sanitation experiments, conducted with contaminated pre-cut lettuce leaves in water, were also carried out. Measurement of the bacterial membrane integrity was assessed using the membrane permeable probe propidium iodide (PI) and by evaluating effects on active transport by the glucose transport system using 2-(N-(7-Nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl)Amino)-2-Deoxyglucose (2-NBDG). The results demonstrate that the relative increase in membrane permeability using PI correlated with NaOCl, but did not correlate with H2O2 induced reduction of bacterial survival quantified by the plate counting method. In contrast to the other approaches, monitoring the loss of glucose transport system function by measuring the uptake of 2-NBDG displayed strong correlation with the reduction of bacterial survival for both NaOCl and H2O2 treatment. Overall, the study demonstrated potential of glucose uptake measurements with 2-NBDG to serve as surrogate method for the traditional plate counting, which is the current gold standard used by the Food and Drugs Administration, to provide a faster analysis of sanitation processes.

Urban subsurface drainage as an alternative water source in a drying climate

The Swan Coastal Plain in Western Australia has been undergoing rapid urban growth and with it comes two primary water related concerns. The first is the spread of development into areas with shallow water tables which requires costly water management to control groundwater level rise; the second is the limited groundwater allocation available in areas earmarked for development. In regard to the second, a potential water source for developments on low-lying land is subsurface drainage that has been installed to control groundwater levels. This research project is being undertaken at two urban developments on low-lying land and includes subsurface drain flow and quality monitoring. The field data will inform numerical hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical models. The objective is to quantify the subsurface drainage volume available as a water resource, and the environmental and operational risk of utilising the resource. The results to date show potential for diverting subsurface flow for direct irrigation in the drier months without the requirement for wet season storage and dry season reuse. Annual subsurface drainage flows provide multiple times the annual irrigation demand if wet season flows are stored and reused by aquifer storage and recovery, and provides opportunity for beneficial use of excess water.

Hygiene and the Use of Robotic Animals in Hospitals: A Review of the Literature

The aim of this study is to synthesize the existing literature on hospital hygiene and robotic animals to provide researchers and professionals that use robotic animals in this environment with tools and guidelines. The conducted literature review leads to the conclusion that cleaning procedures reported in the included studies and hygienic guidelines cannot be applied to currently available robotic animals due to excessive use of water, disinfectants and high temperatures. This study consequently raises questions about the application of these robotic animals in more vulnerable populations and adds to the understanding of the required conditions for robotic animals if being developed to be used in healthcare institutions.

The influence of vegetation types on water yields in the Da Hinggan Mountains of China

Climate change and excessive water use are endangering water resources in many areas of the world. As a result there is an urgency to increase available water resources and to improve water supply using vegetation management in catchment areas. The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of four vegetation types (Quercus mongolica F.; QM), Larix spp. plantation; LP), Prunus sibirica L.; PS) and grassland; GL) on water yields by monitoring surface runoff, infiltration, canopy interception and evapotranspiration in the Da Hinggan Mountains, a semi-arid area of China. Surface runoff for each vegetation type was triggered by rainfall of at least 6.6 mm, with surface runoff significantly increasing with rainfall events over 15.8 mm. The QM forest had the highest amount of runoff (1.34 mm), followed by LP (1.06 mm), PS (1.01 mm) and GL (0.69 mm), this accounting for only 0.23% – 0.44% of the total water balance. Infiltration to a soil depth of 10 cm occurred with rainfall events with at least 13 mm, but the depth of infiltration rarely exceeded 30 cm during most rainfall events. More than half of the rainfall was taken up by vegetation during the growing season, with an order of LP &gt; QM &gt; PS &gt; GL. Comprehensive analysis indicated that QM was the most appropriate vegetation for water conservation in this water-limited area, and this vegetation cover could effectively provide more water resources in the local area.

Water and ecological security: dealing with hydroclimatic challenges at the heart of China’s Silk Road

The Tarim Basin is the heart of China’s Silk Road Economic Belt. The contradiction between economic growth and environmental protection is particularly evident in the basin region. For the past 20 years, the groundwater has been increasingly overused, causing water tables to decline precipitously. In the past decade in particular, the total water storage (TWS) in the basin has undergone a significant decreasing trend, losing around −13 × 108 m3/year from 2002 to 2013. Prior to 1998, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) of natural vegetation exhibited an increasing trend at a rate of 0.012 per decade, but from 1999 onwards, the NDVI started decreasing at a rate of 0.005 per decade. In the 2000s, the bare soil areas of the Taklamakan Desert boundaries expanded by 7.8 %. At the same time, the effects of global warming on water and ecological systems are likewise intensifying in the Tarim Basin. The increases in warming have outpaced increases in precipitation, and the negative effects of climate change on the region’s vulnerable ecology have intensified. Potential changes in the usage of limited water resources may further increase the risk of desertification and deepen the area’s ecological poverty. Excessive water use and over allocation, including overpumping of groundwater, are the main factors causing the loss of groundwater, the depletion of total water storage, and the overall ecological degradation, but these are being exacerbated by global warming. To address all of these issues in a holistic way, a unified management mechanism that encompasses both surface water and groundwater must be developed, and the implementation of the government plan to return farmland to natural vegetation should be speed up.

Farmers’ attitudes towards common farming practices in northern Greece: implications for environmental pollution

Common farming practices in intensive agriculture can be serious causes of water quality degradation, depending on the interaction between physical vulnerability of the farmland and farmers’ behaviors in practicing farming. However, relevant information is highly limited in Greece. Farmers’ attitudes and practices in the use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water were explored in Serres region in northern Greece to understand behavior in practicing farming. The majority of the farmers considered that chemical fertilizers are harmful substances particularly to surface and groundwater and pesticides are highly harmful to human health. Most farmers showed high levels of awareness of the potential impact of farming practices on the environment, probably due to a combination of high experience in farming, adequate formal education, and valid sources of information. Farmers’ compliance with most recommended practices showed high understanding of most components of conservation practices in fertilization, except from a void in the use of soil tests for better adjustment of the fertilization and in the use of organic fertilizers. Only a small fraction of farmers (4.4 %) were found to overuse fertilization, more often in sandy soils, but this practice was not accompanied by excessive use of irrigation water. As for pesticide use, farmers’ compliance with most recommended practices showed high levels of rational use, except from the management of empty pesticide containers. None of the farmers overused soil pesticides with reference to application rates and frequency. Data provide key information for natural resource managers, relevant stakeholders, and local authorities to understand how farmers view their relationship to farming as well as how farmers practice farming. The collected evidence can serve as a valuable benchmark for future comparisons in Greece and possibly for comparisons with other areas of southern Europe. Tailored education programs that improve farmers’ knowledge in fertilizing, pesticide use, and their impact on the environment can be a major step towards promoting sustainable farming and reducing potential environmental contamination.

Agricultural Water Saving Irrigation Controller

Agricultural irrigation uses considerable volumes of water, and is one of the largest groups of consumptive water uses in the state. The water efficiency practices listed in this fact sheet describe how to reduce excess water use through implementation of efficient irrigation technology, effective irrigation scheduling, and soil moisture determination and retention. These practices are designed to minimize water losses from evaporation, deep percolation and runoff. Current research proposed an Embedded System for the Automatic Control of Agricultural Controller. This project has wired sensor network for the real time sensing and controlling of irrigation system. There is a need to develop new indigenous irrigation controller to improve farm productivity and input use efficiency of water and other nutrients. This paper has real time sensing and control of an irrigation system. When the condition of watering the agricultural farm is abnormal then the system automatically switches ON the motor. When the water level reaches normal level the motor automatically switch OFF. In this project we are interfacing microcontroller through temperature sensor, humidity sensor and also interfacing to GSM through MAX 232. This paper presents the design and development of Irrigation controller System built around a microcontroller. The system consists of microcontroller, peripherals including RTC, LCD and driver circuit relay to switch on/off a motor. Different parameters i.e. soil moisture, water contents, intensity, humidity, wind speed, temperature etc. The key objective of this paper is to report on a developed indigenous low cost time based microcontroller based irrigation scheduler which performs user defined functions and outputs commands to derive appropriate actuators (solenoid valves, motor).

Evaluasi Sikap Dan Perilaku Siswa Terhadap Lingkungan Hidup Dan Pembangunan Berwawasan Lingkungan Di Madrasah

&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;Environmental education is one effort to realize environmental sustainability &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;for present until future. Explicitly, it shows that human effort to save&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;environmental must be done continuously, relay from one generation to &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;the next generation. In fact, there is problem about behavior and attitude &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;of student class XI at MA Nurul Ulum Munjungan Trenggalek towards &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;environmental sustainability. Most of student have less concern towards&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;environmental sustainability, for examples throwing the rubbish everywhere, &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;letting classroom dirty, plant that are not caring well, and excessive use of &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;water. In order to describe the behavior and attitude of students towards&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;environmental and development based on environmental, evaluation &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;about behavior and attitude of student is needed to be done actually and &lt;/em&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;systematically.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Keywords: &lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span&gt;&lt;em&gt;Evaluation, behavior, environmental behavior&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br class="Apple-interchange-newline" /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;