Effect Of Virus Infection Research Articles

Comparison of the levels of neopterin, CRP, and IL-6 in patients infected with and without SARS-CoV-2

BackgroundNeopterin (NP) is a biomarker for activated cellular immunity and is elevated in diseases including viral and bacterial infections, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. However, the clinical assessment of neopterin has not been used for these disorders because the physiological significance of measuring NP is obscure. It would be important to compare the NP profiles with those of other inflammation markers especially in relatively early phase of patients to reveal the significance of NP measurements in pathological states. MethodsPlasma NP, biopterin, CRP, and IL-6 levels were measured in 46 patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) and 23 patients with non-COVID-19 disorders. The correlations between these markers were analyzed in the COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 patients independently. ResultsThe NP levels were significantly higher in the COVID-19 patients than in the non-COVID-19 patients, while biopterin, CRP and IL-6 were not changed significantly. The NP levels were found to show a weak negative correlation against the days after onset in the COVID-19 patients (rs = –0.348, p = 0.0192), suggesting that the elevation of NP would be an early event of viral infection. Correlations between NP and CRP, or between NP and IL-6 in COVID-19 patients were weaker than that between CRP and IL-6. ConclusionsThe elevation of NP levels was supposed to be distinct from those of CRP and IL-6 in relatively early and mild COVID-19 patients. Our data suggest that NP is produced at the early phase of infection by different signaling pathways and/or cells from those of CRP and IL-6. Further study on the signaling pathway to induce NP is expected.

Microtubule depolymerization limits porcine betacoronavirus PHEV replication

Porcine hemagglutinating encephalomyelitis virus (PHEV) is a typical neurotropic betacoronavirus causing digestive disease and/or neurological dysfunction in neonatal pigs. Actin filaments have been identified to implicate in PHEV invasion, but the effects of viral infection on microtubules (MTs) cytoskeleton are unknown. Here, we observed that PHEV infection induced MT depolymerization and was accompanied by the disappearance of microtubule organizing centers. Depolymerization of MTs induced by nocodazole significantly inhibited viral RNA replication, but over-polymerization of MTs induced by paclitaxel did not substantially affect PHEV infection. The expression of histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6), an important regulator of MT acetylation, progressively increased during PHEV infection. Tramstatin A could alter HDAC6 deacetylase activity to enhance the acetylation of the substrate α-tubulin and MT polymerization, but does not increase PHEV proliferation. These findings suggest that PHEV could subvert host MT cytoskeleton to facilitate infection, and that MT depolymerization negatively affects viral replication independently of HDAC6 activity.

A capacitive sensor for differentiation between virus-infected and uninfected cells

Traditional biosensors are costly, cumbersome, and take a long time to report results, which limit their use in resource-constrained areas. Due to its high integration, customized architecture, and ease of mass processing, biosensors have been widely used in biomedical applications in recent years. In this paper, a biosensor is implemented using flexible printed circuit board technology for monitoring and identifying the effect of Baculovirus infection on one of its host cells (Sf9 cells) through many electrical features such as capacitance, impedance, permittivity, and conductivity. Furthermore, the effect of viral infection with different particle concentrations at different times was characterized. The results proved that the virus has a rapid effect on the cell by losing its electrical properties, which were clear from the decrease in electrical properties (e.g., capacitance, impedance, permittivity, and conductivity). Moreover, we introduced an equivalent model to represent the normal cells and infected cells based on the experimental results obtained for capacitance values. The proposed model simulation results are matched with the results obtained experimentally, which leads to the use of the model for predicting baculovirus infection.

Consequences of Viral Infection and Cytokine Production During Pregnancy on Brain Development in Offspring.

Infections during pregnancy can seriously damage fetal neurodevelopment by aberrantly activating the maternal immune system, directly impacting fetal neural cells. Increasing evidence suggests that these adverse impacts involve alterations in neural stem cell biology with long-term consequences for offspring, including neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, and cognitive impairment. Here we review how maternal infection with viruses such as Influenza A, Cytomegalovirus, and Zika during pregnancy can affect the brain development of offspring by promoting the release of maternal pro-inflammatory cytokines, triggering neuroinflammation of the fetal brain, and/or directly infecting fetal neural cells. In addition, we review insights into how these infections impact human brain development from studies with animal models and brain organoids. Finally, we discuss how maternal infection with SARS-CoV-2 may have consequences for neurodevelopment of the offspring.

In vitro investigation of HBV clinical isolates from Chinese patients reveals that genotype C isolates possess higher infectivity than genotype B isolates.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype B and C are two major genotypes that are prevalent in Asia and differ in natural history and disease progression. The impact of HBV genotypes on viral replication and protein expression has been explored by the transfection of hepatoma cells with replication-competent HBV DNA, which mimics the later stages of the viral life cycle. However, the influence of HBV genotypes on the early events of viral infection remains undetermined, mainly due to the difficulties in obtaining sufficient infectious viral particles for infection assays. Here, we report that a high-titer HBV inoculum can be generated from the transient transfection-based cell model after optimizing transfection conditions and modifying the HBV-expressing construct. By performing in vitro infection assays using transiently transfected derived viruses, we found that clinical genotype C isolates possessed higher infectivity than genotype B isolates. Moreover, we identified a naturally occurring mutation sL21S in small hepatitis B surface protein, which markedly decreased the infectivity of HBV genotype C isolates, but not that of genotype B isolates. In summary, using infectious viral particles provided by the optimized transient transfection-based cell model, we have been able to investigate a wide range of HBV variants on viral infectivity, which may contribute to our understanding of the reasons for different clinical outcomes in HBV infections and the development of therapeutic drugs targeting the early stages of HBV life cycle.

Genetic analysis of the cold-sensitive growth phenotype of Burkholderia pseudomallei/thailandensis bacteriophage AMP1

Bacteriophages related to phage Bp_AMP1 are the most widely spread group of phages infecting Burkholderia pseudomallei—the causative agent of melioidosis. These viruses are also infective against the nonpathogenic host Burkholderia thailandensis, allowing experimental work with them without any special safety precautions. The indirect data as well as the results of the mathematical modelling suggest that the AMP1-like viruses may act as natural biocontrol agents influencing the population levels of B. pseudomallei in soil and water habitats in endemic regions. The cold sensitivity of the lytic growth (CSg) of these phages was suggested to be an important feature modulating the effect of viral infection on host populations in nature. We performed genetic analysis to determine the molecular background of the CSg phenotype of the AMP1 phage. The results indicate that CSg is not due to the lack of any function or product missing at low temperature (25 °C) but results in growth inhibition by a phage-encoded temperature-sensitive genetic switch. We identified phage ORF3 and ORF14 to be involved in the genetic determination of this mechanism.

Diversity of Dysregulated Long Non-Coding RNAs in HBV-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) continues to pose a major threat to public health as approximately 292 million people worldwide are currently living with the chronic form of the disease, for which treatment is non-curative. Chronic HBV infections often progress to hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) which is one of the world’s leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Although the process of hepatocarcinogenesis is multifaceted and has yet to be fully elucidated, several studies have implicated numerous long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) as contributors to the development of HCC. These host-derived lncRNAs, which are often dysregulated as a consequence of viral infection, have been shown to function as signals, decoys, guides, or scaffolds, to modulate gene expression at epigenetic, transcriptional, post-transcriptional and even post-translational levels. These lncRNAs mainly function to promote HBV replication and oncogene expression or downregulate tumor suppressors. Very few lncRNAs are known to suppress tumorigenesis and these are often downregulated in HCC. In this review, we describe the mechanisms by which lncRNA dysregulation in HBV-related HCC promotes tumorigenesis and cancer progression.

Age-Dependent Invasion of Pseudorabies Virus into Porcine Central Nervous System via Maxillary Nerve.

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is the causative agent for Aujeszky’s disease, a disease that mainly affects pigs and incidentally other domestic and wild animals. While PRV is almost always fatal, causing neurological disease independently of the age in non-porcine species, the development of neurological manifestation in its host species, the pig, highly depends on the age. In this study, an attempt was made to investigate the effect of nerve development on the outcome of virus infection and the effect of virus infection on the structure of nerves in piglets of various ages. For that reason, 42 pigs at the age of one (n = 14), three (n = 14) and five (n = 14) weeks were inoculated with 107 TCID50 of PRV Kaplan strain and euthanized at one- or four-days post inoculation (DPI). The tissues of the trigeminal nervous pathway were collected and examined for virus replication (titration) in cell cultures for nerve morphology by light and transmission electron microscopy, and for viral antigen visualization by immunohistochemistry. The results showed that as the age of the pig increases, virus titers and clinical manifestations reduced, while, at the same time, myelin and axon development ceased. Following infection, the nerve structure was disrupted at all ages examined, being more prominent in one-week-old pigs compared to five-week-old pigs. In conclusion, the age-dependent PRV neuroinvasion in pigs seems to correlate with the morphological changes of neurons.

Transcriptional regulators of human oncoviruses:structural and functional implications for anticancer therapy.

Transcription is often the first biosynthetic event of viral infection. Viruses produce preferentially viral transcriptional regulators (vTRs) essential for expressing viral genes and regulating essential host cell proteins to enable viral genome replication. As vTRs are unique viral proteins that promote the transcription of viral nucleic acid, vTRs interact with host proteins to suppress detection and immune reactions to viral infection. Thus, vTRs are promising therapeutic targets that are sequentially and structurally distinct from host cell proteins. Here, we review vTRs of three human oncoviruses: HBx of hepatitis B virus, HBZ of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1, and Rta of Epstein–Barr virus. We present three cunningly exciting and dangerous transcription strategies that make viral infections so efficient. We use available structural and functional knowledge to critically examine the potential of vTRs as new antiviral-anticancer therapy targets. For each oncovirus, we describe (i) the strategy of viral genome transcription; (ii) vTRs’ structure and binding partners essential for transcription regulation; and (iii) advantages and challenges of vTR targeting in antiviral therapies. We discuss the implications of vTR regulation for oncogenesis and perspectives on developing novel antiviral and anticancer strategies.

Evaluation of the Relationships between Intestinal Regional Lymph Nodes and Immune Responses in Viral Infections in Children.

Viral infections increase the risk of developing allergies in childhood, and disruption of mucosal homeostasis is presumed to be involved. However, no study has reported a role for viral infections in such disruption. In this study, we clarified the mechanism of immunoglobulin A (IgA) overproduction in viral infections. Autopsies were performed on 33 pediatric cases, IgA and interferon (IFN)β levels were measured, and histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations were conducted. Furthermore, we cultured human cells and measured IFNβ and IgA levels to examine the effect of viral infections on IgA production. Blood IgA levels in viral infections were higher than in bacterial infections. Moreover, IFNβ levels in most viral cases were below the detection limit. Cell culture revealed increased IgA in gastrointestinal lymph nodes, especially in Peyer’s patches, due to enhanced IFNβ after viral stimulation. Conversely, respiratory regional lymph nodes showed enhanced IgA with no marked change in IFNβ. Overproduction of IgA, identified as an aberration of the immune system and resulting from excessive viral infection-induced IFNβ was observed in the intestinal regional lymph nodes, particularly in Peyer’s patches. Further, increased IgA without elevated IFNβ in the respiratory system suggested the possibility of a different mechanism from the gastrointestinal system.

Spectral analysis of signals of autonomic regulation of blood circulation in patients with COVID-19 and arterial hypertension

The work aims to carry out a comparative analysis of the spectral indices of the photoplethysmogram signals and RR-intervals of healthy volunteers, patients with COVID-19, as well as patients with COVID-19 and chronic arterial hypertension of 1-2 degrees. The study included 45 records of pairs of electrocardiogram and photoplethysmogram signals. Each sample included 15 pairs of 20-minute experimental signals. The study revealed an increase in the integrated power of the low-frequency (LF) band over the integrated power of the high-frequency (HF) band in the photoplethysmogram signals in patients with COVID-19, burdened with hypertension. In the signals of the RR-intervals, the largest values of the ratio of the LF to HF indices are associated with patients without cardiovascular diseases. In turn, this may be an indicator of the different effects of viral infection and arterial hypertension on the loops of autonomic control of heart rate and vascular tone.

Avian leukosis virus subgroup J infection influences the gut microbiota composition in Huiyang bearded chickens.

Avian leukosis virus (ALV) poses a major threat to poultry. The chicken gut microbiota plays critical roles in host performance, health and immunity. However, the effect of viral infection on the microbiota of Chinese local chickens is not well understood. In this study, we performed high-throughput 16S rRNA gene sequencing and evaluated the gut microbiota profiles using faeces from ALV subgroup J (ALV-J)-infected and healthy Huiyang bearded chickens (Chinese local chickens). At the phylum level, ALV-J infection mainly increased the abundance of Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria and decreased that of Firmicutes. An analysis at the order, family and genus levels showed that the abundance of Lactobacillales, Lactobacillaceae and Lactobacillus was the highest in normal chicken faeces, accounting for 89·07%, 86·47% and 86·46%, respectively, of phylotypes. Moreover, samples from ALV-J-infected chickens were enriched with Bacteroidales, Clostridiales, Bacteroidaceae, Ruminococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae and Bacteroides. Our findings highlight that ALV-J infection alters the gut microbiota and disrupts the host-microbial homeostasis in chickens, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of ALV-J infection.

Effect of Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus Infection on Some Growth Indicators of Pepper Hybrids Grown Under Plastic House Conditions in Lattakia Governorate, Syria

Hamdan, R.S., I.D. Ismail and I. Akel. 2021. Effect of Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus Infection on Some Growth Indicators of Pepper Hybrids Grown Under Plastic House Conditions in Lattakia Governorate, Syria. Arab Journal of Plant Protection, 39(4): 309-316. https://doi.org/10.22268/AJPP-39.4.309316 This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) infection on some growth parameters of several pepper hybrids grown under protected cultivation along the Syrian coast. Four pepper hybrids (Capsicum annum) were tested, two hot (Lahab, Sirad) and two sweet (Nevada, Dallas) peppers. The research was carried out during the 2020-2021 growing season in a plastic house at the Agriculture Scientific Research Center in Lattakia, using a randomized complete block design, with 8 treatments, three replicates and 5 plants per replicate. The results obtained showed that the sweet pepper hybrids (Nevada, Dallas) were more sensitive to infection with Tomato yellow leaf curl virus than the hot pepper hybrids (Lahab, Sirad), without significant differences among them. The pepper hybrid Nevada did not show any apparent symptoms, and the effect of the virus on some growth parameters (number flowers, flower setting, and the leaf surface area) was evident in comparison with other hybrids, but the differences were not significant. The Dallas, Sirad and Lahab pepper hybrids showed visible symptoms in response to infection with infection rate of 93.33%, 80% and 80%, respectively. The effect of virus infection on the growth parameters of these hybrids was variable. The reduction in the flowers number of Nevada, Dallas, Cirad and Lahab after 45 days of infection was 33%, 31.10%, 10.23% and 5.07%, respectively, and also with a reduction in the number of flowers setting of 77.39%, 20.87%, 23.33% and 66.68%, respectively. The same was true for the leaf surface area, where reduction rate for the Nevada, Dallas, Sirad and Lahab hybrids 30 days after infection was 48.17%, 53.06%, 16.45% and 36.6%, respectively. Keywords: Tomato yellow leaf curl virus, pepper hybrids, growth parameter, host resistance, protected agriculture.

Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and thrombotic microangiopathy after parvovirus B19 infection and renal transplantation: a case report

BackgroundHemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a rare and life-threatening disease characterized by hyperactivation of the immune system that causes hypercytokinemia and potentially multi organ failure. HLH can occur in patients with underlying rheumatic or autoinflammatory disorders. Additionally, HLH can develop in patients during infections or malignancies without a known genetic predisposition.Case presentationWe herein report a patient, who presented with fever, both acute kidney and liver injury, anemia, thrombocytopenia and HSV stomatitis. HLH was diagnosed based on clinical criteria and qPCR revealed an acute parvovirus B19 infection as potential underlying infectious trigger. Treatment was started with both IVIG and dexamethasone. Subsequently, kidney biopsy demonstrated TMA.ConclusionsIn rare cases both HLH and aHUS can occur simultaneously in a patient as a consequence of viral infections. Insights from this unusual case might help physicians understand this complex symptom constellation.

PSIX-30 Modulating action of fish oil on serum profiles of pigs exposed to prenatal inflammatory signals

Abstract Inflammatory signals elicited in response to stressors during gestation can affect fetal development and can have prolonged postnatal effects in the offspring. The objectives of the present study were to assess the effects of viral infection during gestation on nursed piglets, and to investigate possible modulating effects of fish oil. A total of 36 pigs were studied, distributed across three gilt treatment groups and sexes within treatment group. One-third of the piglets served as reference, being born from gilts that were not exposed to viral infection and receiving a non-supplemented diet. Another third of the piglets were born from gilts that were challenged with porcine reproductive and respiratory virus during the last third of gestation and receiving a non-supplemented diet. The remaining piglets were born from gilts that were challenged with the virus and were supplemented with fish oil (2.5 g of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaeonic acid). All gilts received diets that met nutritional requirements during gestation and lactation (~90% corn and soybean meal). The piglets remained with the gilts and nursed until 22 d of age at which time blood was drawn and the levels of metabolic parameters were measured. The immune challenge during gestation had a significant effect on the level of globulin (P < 0.02). The globulin levels were higher in female piglets from gilts infected during gestation relative to control gilts. The blood level of triglycerides was similar between piglets from reference gilts and viral-infected gilts supplemented with fish oil, and lower than in piglets from non-supplemented infected gilts. Our results demonstrate that fish oil supplementation can modulate effects of infection during gestation on the piglet. This study is supported by USDA NIFA AFRI, grant number 2018-67015-27413.

Etiology of viral respiratory tract infections in hospitalized adults, and evidence of the high frequency of prehospitalization antibiotic treatment in Norway.

Background and aimsRespiratory tract infections (RTIs) cause considerable morbidity and mortality in all age groups, but the epidemiology and role of several of the viral RTIs in the adult and elderly patients are still unclear, as is the extent of prehospitalization antibacterial drug use in this population.MethodsWe conducted a three‐year (2015‐2018) observational study of viral RTIs in hospitalized patients in a 500‐bed hospital in Southeastern Norway, including all patients ≥18 years with RTI symptoms where one of the following viral agents was detected in a respiratory specimen (Seegene Allplex): Influenza A/B, RSV A/B, human metapneumovirus (hMPV), adenovirus and parainfluenza virus 1‐4. Viral findings, demographical data, and information on prehospital antibiotic prescriptions were recorded.ResultsIn 1182 patients 1222 viral infection events occurred. The mean patient age was 69.6 years, and 53% were females. Influenza virus A/B (63%), RSV A/B (15%) and hMPV (13%) were the most common agents detected. The proportional burden of influenza A H1 was found to be relatively high (65%) in the age groups <69 years, compared to older patients (P = .001, chi‐square).As many as 20% of the patients had been treated with antibiotics prior to admission, with the lowest rate for influenza A H3 group at 17% (P = .036, chi‐square), and highest for the RSV group at 28% (P = .004, chi‐square).Oseltamivir was prescribed prior to hospitalization in only 3 cases (0.2%).ConclusionsWe found a high rate of prehospital antibiotic prescription in adults hospitalized with viral RTIs, warranting better stewardship programs to tackle the increasing antibiotic resistance problem.

Viruses and Metabolism: The Effects of Viral Infections and Viral Insulins on Host Metabolism.

Over the past decades, there have been tremendous efforts to understand the cross-talk between viruses and host metabolism. Several studies have elucidated the mechanisms through which viral infections manipulate metabolic pathways including glucose, fatty acid, protein, and nucleotide metabolism. These pathways are evolutionarily conserved across the tree of life and extremely important for the host’s nutrient utilization and energy production. In this review, we focus on host glucose, glutamine, and fatty acid metabolism and highlight the pathways manipulated by the different classes of viruses to increase their replication. We also explore a new system of viral hormones in which viruses mimic host hormones to manipulate the host endocrine system. We discuss viral insulin/IGF-1-like peptides and their potential effects on host metabolism. Together, these pathogenesis mechanisms targeting cellular signaling pathways create a multidimensional network of interactions between host and viral proteins. Defining and better understanding these mechanisms will help us to develop new therapeutic tools to prevent and treat viral infections.

ESHRE guideline: medically assisted reproduction in patients with a viral infection/disease.

What is the recommended management for medically assisted reproduction (MAR) in patients with a viral infection or disease, based on the best available evidence in the literature? The ESHRE guideline on MAR in patients with a viral infection/disease makes 78 recommendations on prevention of horizontal and vertical transmission before, during and after MAR, and the impact on its outcomes, and these also include recommendations regarding laboratory safety on the processing and storage of gametes and embryos testing positive for viral infections. The development of new and improved anti-viral medications has resulted in improved life expectancy and quality of life for patients with viral infections/diseases. Patients of reproductive age are increasingly exploring their options for family creation. The guideline was developed according to the structured methodology for the development of ESHRE guidelines. After the formulation of nine key questions for six viruses (hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, human immunodeficiency virus, human papilloma virus, human T-lymphotropic virus I/II and Zika virus) by a group of experts, literature searches and assessments were performed. Papers published up to 2 November 2020 and written in English were included in the review. Evidence was analyzed by female, male or couple testing positive for the virus. Based on the collected evidence, recommendations were formulated and discussed until consensus was reached within the guideline group. There were 61 key questions to be answered by the guideline development group (GDG), of which 12 were answered as narrative questions and 49 as PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome) questions. A stakeholder review was organized after the finalization of the draft. The final version was approved by the GDG and the ESHRE Executive Committee. This guideline aims to help providers meet a growing demand for guidance on the management of patients with a viral infection/disease presenting in the fertility clinic.The guideline makes 78 recommendations on prevention of viral transmission before and during MAR, and interventions to reduce/avoid vertical transmission to the newborn. Preferred MAR treatments and interventions are described together with the effect of viral infections on outcomes. The GDG formulated 44 evidence-based recommendations-of which 37 were formulated as strong recommendations and 7 as weak-33 good practice points (GPP) and one research only recommendation. Of the evidence-based recommendations, none were supported by high-quality evidence, two by moderate-quality evidence, 15 by low-quality evidence and 27 by very low-quality evidence. To support future research in the field of MAR in patients with a viral infection/disease, a list of research recommendations is provided. Most interventions included are not well-studied in patients with a viral infection/disease. For a large proportion of interventions, evidence was very limited and of very low quality. More evidence is required for these interventions, especially in the field of human papilloma virus (HPV). Such future studies may require the current recommendations to be revised. The guideline provides clinicians with clear advice on best practice in MAR for patients with a viral infection/disease, based on the best evidence currently available. In addition, a list of research recommendations is provided to stimulate further studies in the field. The guideline was developed and funded by ESHRE, covering expenses associated with the guideline meetings, with the literature searches and with the dissemination of the guideline. The guideline group members did not receive any financial incentives, all work was provided voluntarily. A.D. reports research fees from Ferring and Merck, consulting fees from Ferring, outside the submitted work. C.P. reports speakers fees from Merck and MSD outside the submitted work. K.T. reports speakers fees from Cooper Surgical and Ferring and consultancy fees as member of the advisory board BioTeam of Ferring, outside the submitted work. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. This guideline represents the views of ESHRE, which were achieved after careful consideration of the scientific evidence available at the time of preparation. In the absence of scientific evidence on certain aspects, a consensus between the relevant ESHRE stakeholders has been obtained. Adherence to these clinical practice guidelines does not guarantee a successful or specific outcome, nor does it establish a standard of care. Clinical practice guidelines do not replace the need for application of clinical judgment to each individual presentation, nor variations based on locality and facility type. ESHRE makes no warranty, express or implied, regarding the clinical practice guidelines and specifically excludes any warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular use or purpose. (Full disclaimer available at www.eshre.eu/guidelines.).

Role of Internal Medicines in the Management of Infections w.s.r. to Viral and Fungal Diseases: A Review

Ayurveda works towards the prevention and management of various health problems, Ayurveda also suggests many natural ways to promote general health. Ayurveda in this regards provides several modalities for controlling infectious diseases which described as Sankramak Roga in Ayurveda. As per Ayurveda these Sankramak Roga mainly arises due to the vitiated state of Doshas and this vitiation arises by microbial toxins in case of infectious diseases. Therefore Doshas pacifying medicines recommended controlling infections. Ayurveda drugs like Kapura, Neema, Guduchi, Tulsi and Vacha, etc. helps to treat such pathological conditions. The present scenario of pandemic disaster requires an approach where Ayurveda and modern science can join hand together to combat against this situation. The consequences of viral infections also increases susceptibility towards other infections i.e.; fungal diseases. Considering these all facts this article explored Ayurveda as well as modern approaches for the management of various types of Sankramak Roga w.s.r. to viral and fungal infections.

Virus Infection Variability by Single-Cell Profiling.

Cell-to-cell variability of infection has long been known, yet it has remained one of the least understood phenomena in infection research. It impacts on disease onset and development, yet only recently underlying mechanisms have been studied in clonal cell cultures by single-virion immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. In this review, we showcase how single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), single-molecule RNA-fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (click) with alkynyl-tagged viral genomes dissect infection variability in human and mouse cells. We show how the combined use of scRNA-FISH and click-chemistry reveals highly variable onsets of adenoviral gene expression, and how single live cell plaques reveal lytic and nonlytic adenovirus transmissions. The review highlights how scRNA-seq profiling and scRNA-FISH of coxsackie, influenza, dengue, zika, and herpes simplex virus infections uncover transcriptional variability, and how the host interferon response tunes influenza and sendai virus infections. We introduce the concept of “cell state” in infection variability, and conclude with advances by single-cell simultaneous measurements of chromatin accessibility and mRNA counts at high-throughput. Such technology will further dissect the sequence of events in virus infection and pathology, and better characterize the genetic and genomic stability of viruses, cell autonomous innate immune responses, and mechanisms of tissue injury.