Evaluation Of Fire Performance Research Articles

Enhancing fire safety and thermal performance: Wood composites with bio‐based phase change materials and fire retardants for building applications

AbstractThis work explores the elaboration of wood particle‐based composites incorporating bio‐based phase change materials, with epoxidized linseed oil or clay as a binder. Fire performance evaluation of the novel composites includes an assessment to determine the impact of the addition of boric acid as a fire retardant, as well as the incorporation of recycled paper fibres containing boric acid, and the application of trimethoxymethylsilane coating. The study employs thermogravimetric analysis and cone calorimetry under uniform external irradiance, with a T‐history method to analyse thermal behaviour. Results indicated that fire retardants do not compromise the energy functionality of bio‐based phase change material composites, exhibiting a latent heat of approximately 50 J/g. The density ranges from 750 to 875 kg/m3. The use of clay as a binder improves fire performance, leading to a 60% decrease in total heat release and 52% of the composite mass remaining after analysis. Although enhancing fire performance presents challenges, incorporating wood particles in clay demonstrates a promising potential approach for safe use in building applications, contributing to energy efficiency in indoor heating and cooling. The findings contribute valuable insights into these materials for creating safer and more efficient building solutions, particularly in terms of thermal regulation and fire safety.

A Study on the Quantitative Fire Performance Evaluation Method of Building Finishing Materials with a Focus on Medical Facilities

Buildings in modern society tend to gradually expand in size due to technological development and overcrowding, which increases the risk of fire. Therefore, continuous efforts are being made to ensure the evacuation safety of occupants by installing firefighting facilities and using flame retardant building finishing materials. This study aims to present a fire performance evaluation plan for building finishing materials using simulations and identify risks that arise from not using flame retardant building finishing materials in medical facilities with vulnerable occupants. A control group for fire performance evaluation was selected using polyurethane foam, while two types of cellulose-based building finishing materials with different flame retardants were chosen for analysis. The cellulose-based finishing materials included expanded graphite, magnesium hydroxide, montmorillonite, and ammonium polyphosphate. Fire performance was evaluated using FDS and path detector simulations based on NES 713 and ISO 5660-1. The results of the study showed that there was a difference of three people in the prediction of the number of deaths depending on the scope of analysis, and it was confirmed that the toxic gas detected was different depending on the added flame retardant. Additionally, construction finishing materials with flame retardant performance increased ASET by at least 130 s compared to polyurethane foam, and the evacuation safety exceeded 1, confirming the effectiveness of securing evacuation stability for occupants.

Elevated temperature and performance behaviour of rice straw as waste bio-mass based foamed gypsum hollow blocks

The present study explores mechanical, thermal, acoustic, and fire performance evaluation of locally available rice straw as waste bio-mass in foamed gypsum hollow blocks. Two-core hollow gypsum blocks with various agro-waste compositions have been studied in detail and presented. Aluminum sulphate and potassium alum in 1:1 ratio are used as foaming agents in gypsum blocks. The density of two-core hollow blocks varies from 1070 to 730 kg/m3 for 0–15 wt% rice straw addition. The compressive strength of solid cubes and two-core hollow blocks lies in the range of 4.6-1.4 MPa and 2.2–1.1 MPa respectively. Whereas, the thermal conductivity lies between 0.15 and 0.07 W/m.K. exhibiting excellent thermal insulation. The sound transmission class (STC) of straw based foamed gypsum varies over the range of 23 to 20 dB for 20 mm thick with 0–15 wt% agro-waste added samples. The 5 wt% foamed rice straw gypsum sample has shown resistance to the surface spread of flame and the wallette unit of 600 mm × 600 mm has 70.5 kN of load carrying capacity at 800 °C. The foamed agro-waste-based hollow gypsum blocks may be used as a potential building material for non-load bearing wall application owing to its high thermal insulation, moderate acoustic and excellent fire retardant properties.

Recycling used engine oil in concrete: Fire performance evaluation

Recycling used engine oil (UEO) into concrete is a viable and clean solution, as UEO has functions similar to chemical additives (i.e. as a water reducer and air entrainer) for concrete production. However, prior to the use of this ecofriendly concrete within the building industry, its fire performance should be thoroughly evaluated to further prove the technical feasibility and promote its safe application. Here, the fire performance of UEO concrete following exposure to elevated temperatures was assessed by measuring its compressive strength and elastic modulus. Experimental outcomes suggest that concrete admixed with 2% UEO by mass of cementitious materials shows enhanced fire performance and that concrete admixed with 5% UEO exhibits comparable mechanical properties to reference concrete. In ascertaining the microstructural origins behind the mechanical performance changes, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted to analyze the surface morphology of UEO concrete. The analysis demonstrates that concrete with 2% UEO features densely packed fibrous calcium silicate hydrates (C–S–H) at 200 °C that contribute to strength increase. In addition, the surface characteristics of UEO concrete in terms of color changes, cracks, and pore density were analyzed to supplement the fire performance information, with the intention of facilitating structural health assessments following fire attacks. Moreover, the environmental and economic assessments of the proposed UEO disposal approach concerning carbon dioxide emissions, energy consumption, and costs, respectively, are discussed and contrasted with the mainstream disposal options. The discussion suggests that the present recycling strategy can reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 8050–10750 kg, energy consumption by 2.87–4.13 billion MJ, and disposal costs by HK$3250–9450 per tonne of UEO. These findings will contribute to advancing a clean UEO management strategy and to engineering waste-enhanced concrete with desired fire performance for sustainable civil infrastructure.

Thermal Hazard and Smoke Toxicity Assessment of Building Polymers Incorporating TGA and FTIR—Integrated Cone Calorimeter Arrangement

Building polymers are highly flammable and produce a vast amount of toxic chemical compounds in the event of a fire which can lead to potential incapacitation and death. To gain an in-depth understanding of this issue, smoke toxicity and thermal characteristics of seven commonly used building polymers were analysed through a systematic fire performance evaluation system using a Thermogravimetric Analyzer and a Cone Calorimeter coupled with an FTIR arrangement. Four Fractional Effective Dose (FED) expressions were compared to assess the smoke toxicity of the fire effluents based on different assumptions. It was found that FEDN2, calculated using Purser’s equation, reported the highest values of FED with the following order of potential smoke toxicity at 50 kW/m2 radiative heat flux: LDPU > HDPU > PE > HDEPS > XPS > EVA > LDEPS. Furthermore, fire performance evaluation of the polymers was carried out by considering three key fire risk parameters, i.e., flashover propensity, total heat released, and toxic hazard. At 50 kW/m2 radiative heat flux, HDPU exhibited 11.7 times flashover propensity compared to the least flammable polymer (HDEPS), EVA exhibited 5 times total heat release compared to the polymer with the lowest total heat release (LDEPS) and, LDPU exhibited 6.7 potential times toxic hazard compared to the least toxic polymer (EVA).

Evaluation of fire performance of lightweight concrete wall panels using finite element analysis

PurposeIn this study, the insulation fire ratings of lightweight foamed concrete, autoclaved aerated concrete and lightweight aggregate concrete were investigated using finite element modelling.Design/methodology/approachLightweight aggregate concrete containing various aggregate types, i.e. expanded slag, pumice, expanded clay and expanded shale were studied under standard fire and hydro–carbon fire situations using validated finite element models. Results were used to derive empirical equations for determining the insulation fire ratings of lightweight concrete wall panels.FindingsIt was observed that autoclaved aerated concrete and foamed lightweight concrete have better insulation fire ratings compared with lightweight aggregate concrete. Depending on the insulation fire rating requirement of 15%–30% of material saving could be achieved when lightweight aggregate concrete wall panels are replaced with the autoclaved aerated or foamed concrete wall panels. Lightweight aggregate concrete fire performance depends on the type of lightweight aggregate. Lightweight concrete with pumice aggregate showed better fire performance among the normal lightweight aggregate concretes. Material saving of 9%–14% could be obtained when pumice aggregate is used as the lightweight aggregate material. Hydrocarbon fire has shown aggressive effect during the first two hours of fire exposure; hence, wall panels with lesser thickness were adversely affected.Originality/valueFinding of this study could be used to determine the optimum lightweight concrete wall type and the optimum thickness requirement of the wall panels for a required application.

Flame behaviour, fire hazard and fire testing approach for lightweight composite claddings – a review

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to review and summarise the existing available literature on lightweight cladding systems to provide detailed information on fire behaviour (ignitibility, heat release rate and smoke toxicity) and various test method protocols. Additionally, the paper discusses the challenges and provides updated knowledge and recommendation on selective-fire mechanisms such as rapid-fire spread, air cavity and fire re-entry behaviours due to dripping and melting of lightweight composite claddings.Design/methodology/approachA comprehensive literature review on fire behaviour, fire hazard and testing methods of lightweight composite claddings has been conducted in this research. In summarising all possible fire hazards, particular attention is given to the potential impact of toxicity of lightweight cladding fires. In addition, various criteria for fire performance evaluation of lightweight composite claddings are also highlighted. These evaluations are generally categorised as small-, intermediate- and large-scale test methods.FindingsThe major challenges of lightweight claddings are rapid fire spread, smoke production and toxicity and inconsistency in fire testing.Originality/valueThe review highlights the current challenges in cladding fire, smoke toxicity, testing system and regulation to provide some research recommendations to address the identified challenges.

Fire Performance Evaluation of CFRP Sandwich Panels for Construction

Fire Performance Evaluation of CFRP Sandwich Panels for Construction

Surface Modification of Cellulose Microcrystalline with Aluminate Coupling Agent and Its Effects on Flame Retardant and Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Resin

Cellulose microcrystalline (CMC), a linear polysaccharide with glucosidic bond, was successfully extracted from bamboo powder and modified by aluminate coupling agent (ACA) to prepare ACA-CMC. The chemical structure of as-designed ACA-CMC was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectra. ACA-CMC, in association with ammonium polyphosphate (APP), was introduced into epoxy resin (EP) by casting process to obtain flame-resistant composites. The fire performance evaluation indicated that the presence of 10 phr APP and 5 phr ACA-CMC in EP achieved the maximal LOI value of 29.0 %, passed the UL-94 V-0 rating, and significantly decreased the peak heat release rate from 1055 kW · m−2 of neat EP to 294 kW · m−2. The introduction of ACA-CMC could also improve the mechanical properties of EP composites due to the strengthening effect of CMC and better interfacial compatibility after modification with ACA. Moreover, the relative mechanisms were also proposed.

Fire performance evaluation of cladding wall assemblies using the 16‐ft high parallel panel test method of ANSI/FM 4880

SummaryCladding assemblies are façade systems made of cladding panels such as aluminum composite materials (ACMs) and high‐pressure laminates (HPLs), and layers of continuous insulation (CI) and weather resistive barrier (WRB). Recent incidents of catastrophic fires involving cladding assemblies have warranted efforts to understand their fire hazards and develop engineering risk mitigation guidelines for existing constructions. This research provides a comprehensive fire performance evaluation of cladding assemblies exposed to realistic fire scenarios. Twelve cladding assemblies, with a combination of four types of claddings, four types of CIs, and two WRBs are selected. The tests are conducted using the 16‐ft (4.9 m) high parallel panel test (16‐ft PPT) method of ANSI/FM 4880 standard; the method imparts realistic >100 kW/m2 heat flux to the wall assemblies. The results show that the chemical heat release rate (HRR) based evaluation criterion used in the 16‐ft PPT provides an objective and robust assessment of fire performance. The wall assemblies comprising of thermoplastic‐core ACMs demonstrated accelerated flame spread within a matter of a few minutes, regardless of the combustibility of the CI used. At low heat flux exposures, unlike severe fire scenarios of the 16‐ft PPT, it is shown that the thermoplastic‐core ACMs appear to perform favorably. The fire‐retardant ACM and HPL assemblies reveal limited flame spread, regardless of whether the CI used in the assembly was charring combustible or noncombustible. Lastly, for the assemblies evaluated, the flammability of claddings exhibits greater influence on the overall performance of the wall system, while the CI and WRB affect the system performance in a secondary manner.

Preparation of 3‐aminopropyltriethoxy silane modified cellulose microcrystalline and their applications as flame retardant and reinforcing agents in epoxy resin

Cellulose microcrystalline (CMC), a linear polysaccharide with glucosidic bond, was successfully extracted from bamboo powder and modified by 3‐aminopropyltriethoxy silane coupling agent (KH550) to prepare KH550‐CMC. The prepared KH550‐CMC, in association with ammonium polyphosphate (APP), was introduced into epoxy resin (EP) by casting process to obtain flame retardant composites. The fire performance evaluation indicated that the presence of 10‐phr APP and 5‐phr KH550‐CMC in EP achieved the maximal LOI value of 28.9%, passed the UL‐94 V‐0 rating, and significantly decreased the peak heat release rate from 1055 kW/m2 of neat EP to 286 kW/m2. The improved fire performance is due to the improvement of dispersity of CMC in EP matrix and formation of better char layer, thus protecting the matrix effectively. Moreover, the introduction of KH550‐CMC could also partly eliminate the negative influence of flame retardants on the mechanical properties of EP composites due to the strengthening effect of CMC and better interfacial compatibility after modification with KH550.

16.30: Safety evaluation of a large‐span double‐deck cable‐stayed steel bridge under fire

ABSTRACTThis paper presents a detailed safety evaluation of a large‐span cable‐stayed steel bridge under fire, which is also the first large‐span double‐deck highway cable‐stayed steel bridge in China. This steel bridge is a crucial part of urban lifeline engineering and is close to an industrial park which might raise the probability of being damaged by oil tank trucks or hazardous chemical vehicles, especially when a truck traveling on the lower deck of the bridge catches fire, it will endanger the safety of major steel bridge components supporting the upper deck and steel trusses on two sides. So, it is very important to conduct the performance evaluation and design of this steel bridge under fire. In this paper, the dangerous fire scenarios are selected and fluid dynamic simulations are conducted and the temperatures of the air and steel components are obtained, based on the component temperatures, structural analysis and capacity checks are made to offer reasonable preventive measures and solutions to protect the bridge subjected to the fire loading. The methodology presented in this paper is an effective approach for fire performance evaluation of bridge structures and has the potential for applications to other types of bridge structures.

The fire performance of polylactic acid containing a novel intumescent flame retardant and intercalated layered double hydroxides

In this work, a novel single macromolecular intumescent flame retardant (DT-M) was prepared by self-assembly of diethylenetriamine penta-(methylenephosphonic) acid with melamine, and modified layered double hydroxides (LDH) were also prepared by intercalating phytic acid into LDHs. The chemical structures of DT-M and phytic acid intercalated LDHs (PA–LDH) were fully characterized by different analytical instruments, and then were introduced into PLA by melt compounding to prepare a flame retardant biodegradable PLA composite. The fire performance evaluation of PLA composites by limiting oxygen index (LOI), vertical burning (UL-94) and cone calorimeter tests indicated that the introduction of 14% DT-M and 1% PA–LDH increased the LOI value from 19.4 to 38.9%, upgraded the UL-94 rating from no rating to V-0, and decreased the peak heat release rate from 812 to 301 kW m−2. The analysis for decomposition products of PLA composite and the observation of morphology of the char suggested that DT-M and PA–LDH took effects in both condensed phase through promoting char formation and gas phase through releasing inert gases.

Evaluation of fire performance of linear low-density polyethylene containing novel intumescent flame retardant

A novel single-molecule intumescent flame retardant, melamine salt of montmorillonite phosphate (MMP), was synthesized and characterized by FTIR and XRD. The effect of MMP on the thermal stability and flammability properties of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) was studied by thermogravimetric analysis, vertical burning test (UL-94V), and cone calorimeter. In addition, the synergistic effect between MMP and low concentrations from zinc borate (ZB) on LLDPE thermal stability and flammability properties was investigated. The results showed that addition of MMP and MMP/ZB to LLDPE improved the thermal stability at high temperatures and enhanced the char formation at 750 °C. UL-94V test results presented that LLDPE achieved V-0 rating at (30%MMP/5%ZB) loading level. The cone calorimeter data showed that MMP and MMP/ZB considerably reduced peak of heat release rate, mean heat release rate, total heat release, and mean mass loss rate of LLDPE. The data of fire performance index, fire growth rate index, and maximum average rate of heat emission indicated that MMP and MMP/ZB additives reduced the fire risks of LLDPE. The digital photographs, SEM images, and EDXS analysis for the char residue after cone calorimeter test showed the formation of coherent, compact, and thermally stable char layer on the polymer composites surfaces.

Evaluation of Fire-Performance by Cone-Calorimeter Tests and Thermal Conductivity of Polymer-Modified Mortars and Various Concretes

Evaluation of Fire-Performance by Cone-Calorimeter Tests and Thermal Conductivity of Polymer-Modified Mortars and Various Concretes

Evaluation of fire performance of prefabricated concrete buildings in Turkey

Two different large-scale industrial structures that were destroyed by fires in 2011 and 2012 in Turkey were examined. The structural framework in the first structure was constructed as prefabricated concrete, while a prefabricated concrete–steel (hybrid) was the structural framework in the second. The post-fire performance of the structures was evaluated according to the structural system properties of the buildings and tests on concrete core and steel reinforcement samples obtained from the structures. Since the fire durations of the two buildings examined were slightly different, in addition to the structural framework differences, material test results were comparatively interpreted for the two structures. The concrete used in the building exposed to the longer fire duration suffered a substantial loss in mechanical properties, the concrete cover in the reinforced concrete elements failed completely, and there was a significant loss in the yield strength of the steel reinforcement. In the second structure, which experienced a fire of shorter duration, although the concrete cover had failed similarly to the first case, there was not a substantial loss in the mechanical properties of the reinforcement and concrete. It was observed that damage to the steel structural framework in the second structure (a prefabricated concrete–steel hybrid) triggered damage in the prefabricated concrete system. The precautions that need to be taken in terms of fire, especially in industrial structures, were evaluated based on either the load-carrying system or the section, and suggestions for improvements are made.

Evaluation of fire performance of organic fire retardant free acrylic based coatings applied on various building materials by cone calorimetric method

SummaryFire performance of water‐based plaster systems containing acrylic copolymer binder and non‐flammable mineral and ceramic fillers intended for decorative coating application was determined by cone calorimetric method. The coatings were applied on common building substrate materials used in construction sector, namely, Medium Density Fibre (MDF) boards, Gypsum Boards (GIB) and Stainless Steel (SS), and the different plaster finishes attempted on these substrates were Tierrafino, Suave and Bone China respectively. Group numbers of the different test samples were also evaluated following the Kokkala method. Based on various measurements, especially heat release, smoke evolution, mass loss data and the Group number estimates, it is evident that these organic fire retardant free coatings can offer good fire safety if applied on appropriate substrates like GIB or SS. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fire performance of sandwich wall assemblies

Abstract Fire performance is often identified as a difficult obstacle to overcome in designing lightweight sandwich panels suitable for use in building applications. Fireproofing generally increases the weight and cost of sandwich panels, reducing the field of application of such solutions. This study presents the fire performance evaluation of different non-loadbearing sandwich wall assemblies, based on the fire resistance test methods recommended by EN 13501-2, EN 1363-1 and EN 1364-1. The main objectives of the present study are: (i) to evaluate the fire performance of different core materials; (ii) to evaluate the fire performance of different fireproofing materials; (iii) to classify the fire resistance of different wall assemblies; and (iv) to design a sandwich panel which withstands a 60 min fire exposure without compromising its integrity (E) and thermal insulation (I) capabilities. Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS), polyethylene terephthalate foam (PET), cork agglomerate (CA) and stone wool (SW) were tested as core materials. Fireproofing gypsum boards (FG) and magnesium oxide boards (MGO) were tested as fireproofing materials. The skins of all sandwich panels tested were glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP). Cork agglomerate cores exhibited the lowest thermal decomposition rate under fire exposure and cork agglomerate core sandwich wall assemblies proved to withstand fire exposure for the intended duration, presenting the required performance, even dismissing the use of fireproofing boards.

A new fire performance test for cavity wall insulation

Cavity walls containing combustible insulation present an increased risk for fire propagation in a confined, concealed space. Damage to the building resulting from ignition of combustible insulation can be extensive; especially so, in the absence of horizontal and vertical fire-stops. Current codes and standards assess fire performance of exterior wall assemblies subjected to external ignition sources. However, test methods do not address the potential fire hazard resulting from ignition of combustible insulation within the wall cavity. A fire performance test has been developed that evaluates the fire propagation behavior of combustible insulation in a configuration that is representative of the actual installation. The test utilizes a full scale cavity wall assembly and offers fire performance evaluation of insulation of any thickness for either a 51 mm or 102 mm wide air space. A propane sand burner was selected as the ignition source; in addition to being reliable and repeatable, its heat output was carefully calibrated to be representative of potential ignition scenarios that may occur within a cavity wall. During the 15 minute fire performance test, the sample is continuously subjected to the propane sand burner exposure fire. An acceptable sample will produce a peak chemical heat release rate less than 100 kW and a maximum visible flame height less than 1.8 m. This fire performance test method is being incorporated into FM Approvals Standard for Cavity Walls and Rainscreens, Class Number 4411 [1] and is suitable for incorporation into other codes and standards. © Owned by the authors, published by EDP Sciences, 2016 Language: en

Analytic evaluation of fire performance according to boundary conditions and lengths for steel columns built with SM 520 and SM 570 at high temperatures

The fire performance of H-section columns made of high strength structural steels can be sustained by the coating of fire protective material. The thickness of fire protective material evaluated from fire test can be used any kind of grades, lengths, and boundary conditions of H-section columns. While, the H-section column designed and constructed in a building can have various grades of structural steels, lengths, and boundary conditions. To suggest a new guideline of fire protection material for H-section column made of high strength structural steels, fire engineering design was adopted. The facts derived from this study showed that the use of fire protection material derived from load fire tests with SS 400, 3500mm, and hinge to hinge boundary condition into H-section column made of SM 520 and SM 570 with a longer column length and other boundary condition is determined to be safe.