European Longitudinal Study Of Pregnancy And Childhood Research Articles

Prenatal exposure to alcohol and its impact on reward processing and substance use in adulthood

Heavy maternal alcohol drinking during pregnancy has been associated with altered neurodevelopment in the child but the effects of low-dose alcohol drinking are less clear and any potential safe level of alcohol use during pregnancy is not known. We evaluated the effects of prenatal alcohol on reward-related behavior and substance use in young adulthood and the potential sex differences therein. Participants were members of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) prenatal birth cohort who participated in its neuroimaging follow-up in young adulthood. A total of 191 participants (28–30 years; 51% men) had complete data on prenatal exposure to alcohol, current substance use, and fMRI data from young adulthood. Maternal alcohol drinking was assessed during mid-pregnancy and pre-conception. Brain response to reward anticipation and reward feedback was measured using the Monetary Incentive Delay task and substance use in young adulthood was assessed using a self-report questionnaire. We showed that even a moderate exposure to alcohol in mid-pregnancy but not pre-conception was associated with robust effects on brain response to reward feedback (six frontal, one parietal, one temporal, and one occipital cluster) and with greater cannabis use in both men and women 30 years later. Moreover, mid-pregnancy but not pre-conception exposure to alcohol was associated with greater cannabis use in young adulthood and these effects were independent of maternal education and maternal depression during pregnancy. Further, the extent of cannabis use in the late 20 s was predicted by the brain response to reward feedback in three out of the nine prenatal alcohol-related clusters and these effects were independent of current alcohol use. Sex differences in the brain response to reward outcome emerged only during the no loss vs. loss contrast. Young adult men exposed to alcohol prenatally had significantly larger brain response to no loss vs. loss in the putamen and occipital region than women exposed to prenatal alcohol. Therefore, we conclude that even moderate exposure to alcohol prenatally has long-lasting effects on brain function during reward processing and risk of cannabis use in young adulthood.

Development of historic monthly land use regression models of SO2, NOx and suspended particulate matter for birth cohort ELSPAC

Vulnerable windows in child development in utero and after birth are critical time points for uncovering the links between environment and health. Particular attention is paid to the first 1000 days of life from conception to the second year of life.The ELSPAC (European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood) birth cohort, launched in the early 1990s, is a rich source of longitudinal data about health and life events, based mainly in Brno, Czechia. There are currently no air quality concentration maps that can be used to assess exposure to air pollutants for this period of the 1990s in Central Europe. Simply transferring current models to the 1990's is burdened with the error introduced by the temporal change in emission sources and land use of the area. Therefore, Czech air quality monitoring data were used to develop monthly land use regression (LUR) models, which combine collected spatial variables with monitoring data to predict the variation in exposures to pollutants. Monthly pollutant concentrations were regressed against the GIS-based potential predictor variables to develop LUR models, following a supervised forward linear regression, with several predefined constraints.We constructed 180 LUR monthly models for sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and suspended particulate matter (SPM) for 1990–1994, that completely cover the first 1000 days for all ELSPAC study participants. The final models showed, on average reasonably good performance (adjusted R2 = 0.59 with hold-out validation (HOV) R2 = 0.40 for SO2; adjusted R2 = 0.75 with HOV R2 = 0.35 for NOx; and adjusted R2 = 0.61 with HOV R2 = 0.31 for SPM; with a mean number of stations of 74, 38 and 41, respectively). For these models, roads and greenness were predominantly selected as the best predictors.The modelled exposures will serve in many subsequent ELSPAC epidemiological studies, but our models may be also used in other Czech and possibly other Central European cities in that period.

Polymorphisms in genes expressed during amelogenesis and their association with dental caries: a case–control study

ObjectivesDental caries is a widespread multifactorial disease, caused by the demineralization of hard dental tissues. Susceptibility to dental caries is partially genetically conditioned; this study was aimed at finding an association of selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes encoding proteins involved in amelogenesis with this disease in children.Materials and methodsIn this case–control study, 15 SNPs in ALOX15, AMBN, AMELX, KLK4, TFIP11, and TUFT1 genes were analyzed in 150 children with primary dentition and 611 children with permanent teeth with/without dental caries from the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) cohort.ResultsDental caries in primary dentition was associated with SNPs in AMELX (rs17878486) and KLK4 (rs198968, rs2242670), and dental caries in permanent dentition with SNPs in AMELX (rs17878486) and KLK4 (rs2235091, rs2242670, rs2978642), (p ≤ 0.05). No significant differences between cases and controls were observed in the allele or genotype frequencies of any of the selected SNPs in ALOX15, AMBN, TFIP11, and TUFT1 genes (p > 0.05). Some KLK4 haplotypes were associated with dental caries in permanent dentition (p ≤ 0.05).ConclusionsBased on this study, we found that although the SNPs in AMELX and KLK4 are localized in intronic regions and their functional significance has not yet been determined, they are associated with susceptibility to dental caries in children.Clinical relevanceAMELX and KLK4 variants could be considered in the risk assessment of dental caries, especially in permanent dentition, in the European Caucasian population.

Prenatal stress and its association with amygdala-related structural covariance patterns in youth

BackgroundPrenatal stress influences brain development and mood disorder vulnerability. Brain structural covariance network (SCN) properties based on inter-regional volumetric correlations may reflect developmentally-mediated shared plasticity among regions. Childhood trauma is associated with amygdala-centric SCN reorganization patterns, however, the impact of prenatal stress on SCN properties remains unknown. MethodsThe study included participants from the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) with archival prenatal stress data and structural MRI acquired in young adulthood (age 23–24). SCNs were constructed based on Freesurfer-extracted volumes of 7 subcortical and 34 cortical regions. We compared amygdala degree centrality, a measure of hubness, between those exposed to high vs. low (median split) prenatal stress, defined by maternal reports of stressful life events during the first (n = 93, 57% female) and second (n = 125, 54% female) half of pregnancy. Group differences were tested across network density thresholds (5–40%) using 10,000 permutations, with sex and intracranial volume as covariates, followed by sex-specific analyses. Finally, we sought to replicate our results in an independent all-male sample (n = 450, age 18–20) from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). ResultsThe high-stress during the first half of pregnancy ELSPAC group showed lower amygdala degree particularly in men, who demonstrated this difference at 10 consecutive thresholds, with no significant differences in global network properties. At the lowest significant density threshold, amygdala volume was positively correlated with hippocampus, putamen, rostral anterior and posterior cingulate, transverse temporal, and pericalcarine cortex in the low-stress (p(FDR) < 0.027), but not the high-stress (p(FDR) > 0.882) group. Although amygdala degree was nominally lower across thresholds in the high-stress ALSPAC group, these results were not significant. ConclusionUnlike childhood trauma, prenatal stress may shift SCN towards a less amygdala-centric SCN pattern, particularly in men. These findings did not replicate in an all-male ALSPAC sample, possibly due to the sample’s younger age and lower prenatal stress exposure.

Birth weight rather than birth length is associated with childhood behavioural problems in a Czech ELSPAC cohort.

Many physical and psychological characteristics are influenced by prenatal development. Some studies have located links between low birth parameters and behavioural problems, with the latter in turn associated with educational progress, career success, overall health, and subsequent life events. However, few studies have investigated whether this association also applies to children in the normal birth growth range. This study thus investigates the relationship between normal-range birth length, weight, and behavioural problems at the age of seven. We use data from the Czech part of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) cohort, which provides comprehensive insight into a post-communist country undergoing a period of economic transition. Childhood behavioural problems were measured in 1,796 children using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Associations were modelled using weighted logistic regression. Birth weight was found to be linked to the total difficulties score, hyperactivity, and peer relationship problems subscales in a fully adjusted model while birth length was not significantly associated with any subscale in the fully adjusted model. We thus conclude that normal-range birth weight is associated with behavioural problems. It can therefore be assumed that the odds of behavioural problems and their consequences can be mitigated by preventive programs targeting pregnant women and children with lower but still normal weight.

Temporally and sex-specific effects of maternal perinatal stress on offspring cortical gyrification and mood in young adulthood.

Maternal stress during pregnancy and shortly thereafter is associated with altered offspring brain development that may increase risk of mood and anxiety disorders. Cortical gyrification is established during the prenatal period and the first 2 years of life and is altered in psychiatric disorders. Here, we sought to characterize the effects of perinatal stress exposure on offspring gyrification patterns and mood dysregulation in young adulthood. Participants included 85 young adults (56.5% women; 23–24 years) from the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) with perinatal stress data across four distinct timepoints and structural MRI data from young adulthood. Perinatal stress exposure was measured as maternal stress during first and second half of pregnancy, first 6 months, and 6–18 months after birth. Cortical gyrification and mood dysregulation were quantified using local gyrification index (LGI), computed with Freesurfer, and the Profile of Mood States questionnaire, respectively. Perinatal stress predicted cortical gyrification in young adulthood, and its timing influenced location, direction, and sex‐specificity of effects. In particular, whereas early prenatal stress was associated with sex‐dependent medium‐to‐large effects in large temporal, parietal, and occipital regions (f 2 = 0.19–0.38, p < .001), later perinatal stress was associated with sex‐independent small‐to‐medium effects in smaller, more anterior regions (f 2 = 0.10–0.19, p < .003). Moreover, in females, early prenatal stress predicted higher LGI in a large temporal region, which was further associated with mood disturbance in adulthood (r = 0.399, p = .006). These findings point out the long‐term implications of perinatal stress exposure for cortical morphology and mood dysregulation.

Epigenetic clock as a correlate of anxiety

DNA methylation changes consistently throughout life and age-dependent alterations in DNA methylation can be used to estimate one’s epigenetic age. Post-mortem studies revealed higher epigenetic age in brains of patients with major depressive disorder, as compared with controls. Since MDD is highly correlated with anxiety, we hypothesized that symptoms of anxiety, as well as lower volume of grey matter (GM) in depression-related cortical regions, will be associated with faster epigenetic clock in a community-based sample of young adults. Participants included 88 young adults (53% men; 23–24 years of age) from the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) who participated in its neuroimaging follow-up and provided saliva samples for epigenetic analysis. Epigenetic age was calculated according to Horvath (Horvath, 2013). Women had slower epigenetic clock than men (Cohen’s d = 0.48). In women (but not men), slower epigenetic clock was associated with less symptoms of anxiety. In the brain, women (but not men) with slower epigenetic clock had greater GM volume in the cerebral cortex (brain size-corrected; R2 = 0.07). Lobe-specific analyses showed that in women (but not men), slower epigenetic clock was associated with greater GM volume in frontal lobe (R2 = 0.16), and that GM volume in frontal lobe mediated the relationship between the speed of epigenetic clock and anxiety trait (ab = 0.15, SE = 0.15, 95% CI [0.007; 0.369]). These findings were not replicated, however, in a community-based sample of adolescents (n = 129; 49% men; 12–19 years of age), possibly due to the different method of tissue collection (blood vs. saliva) or additional sources of variability in the cohort of adolescents (puberty stages, socioeconomic status, prenatal exposure to maternal smoking during pregnancy).

Maternal characteristics in childhood and smoking at age of 15: Findings from the Czech Republic

Abstract Objective Maternal employment has been shown to influence child’s health, cognitive and behavioural outcomes. There is only a limited number of studies in Central Europe investigating the impact of parental employment on the uptake of smoking in children. The aim of this work is to look at the influence of maternal employment over the whole period of childhood of their children, and other maternal social and behavioural characteristics on the uptake of smoking among children aged 15 in the Czech part of European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC). Methods There were 971 individuals with complete data on smoking behaviour at age of 15, pattern of maternal employment between child ages 3 and 15, and other covariates including gender, maternal age, maternal education and marital status, household income, and maternal smoking. Logistic regression was used to analyse the association between maternal employment and smoking in their children. Results 37% of adolescents aged 15 years reported trying cigarette more than once. Preliminary results suggest that those whose mothers were in paid work were more likely to be smoking at age 15. When stratified by maternal education, the association between maternal employment and smoking was particularly strong among university educated mothers. Those whose mothers were never employed were 4-times more likely to smoke than those whose mothers were continuously employed between ages 3 and 15. The association between maternal employment and smoking was weaker in other strata of maternal education. Conclusions Although maternal employment might have only a limited role in development of smoking behaviour of young adolescents, the association between maternal employment during childhood and young adolescents’ smoking does exist and is particularly strong among those with university educated mothers. Key messages More than one third of Czech adolescents self-reported repeated attempt to smoke cigarettes or cigars or pipe at the beginning of new Millennium. Data suggest that adolescents whose mothers had not been employed were more likely to smoke than those of employed mothers.

Sibling relatedness rather than father absence predicts earlier age at menarche in ELSPAC cohort.

Many studies during the past 50 years have found an association between father absence and earlier menarche. In connection with these findings, several evolutionary theories assume that father absence is a causal factor accelerating reproductive development. However, a recent study analysing data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) found that father absence does not predict age at menarche when adjusted for sibling relatedness. In this study, we have replicated these results in the Czech section of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC), which used the same questionnaires as ALSPAC to study a geographically distinct population. Our results support the conclusion that sibling relatedness rather than father absence predicts age at menarche. Furthermore, our results show that age at menarche in 1990s UK and Czech cohorts is very similar despite socioeconomic differences between the two countries.

Subjective Health Complaints in Fifteen-Year-Old Czech Adolescents: The Role of Self-Esteem, Interparental Conflict, and Gender

This cross-sectional study aims to 1) investigate the factor structure and measurement invariance of subjective health complaints inventory in terms of gender, 2) examine the role of selfesteem, interparental conflict and gender in Czech adolescents’ subjective health complaints, and 3) examine a possible moderating effect of gender in these relationships. Czech adolescents (N = 1602, 51% girls) from an epidemiological part of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) completed questionnaires at home and a psychological sub-sample of ELSPAC (n = 343, 46% girls) completed questionnaires during individual psychological examinations in the years 2006 and 2007. The subjective health complaints inventory used in this study is a unidimensional and scalar invariant for sex. Girls reported more subjective health symptoms than boys. Self-esteem may play a protective role for the adolescents’ subjective health symptoms, especially in boys, whereas self-blame and threat in an interparental conflict may serve as a risk factor similarly for both sexes.

Estimated dietary iodine intake as a predictor of placental size: evidence from the ELSPAC study

BackgroundThe relationship between low iodine status and pregnancy-associated comorbidities has been known for decades. The relationship between iodine intake and placental pathologies is, however, far less clear. This study was designed to examine the relationship between dietary iodine intake and placental size while also focusing on typical adverse pregnancy outcomes.MethodThe dietary iodine intake of 4711 pregnant women enrolled in the Czech part of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) in 1990–1991 was established using a 145-item food frequency questionnaire. Multivariate linear regression models were used to estimate the relationship between dietary iodine intake during pregnancy and placental weight. Additional models were constructed to investigate the relationship between estimated dietary iodine intake and adverse birth outcomes.ResultsThe estimated average iodine intake in the ELSPAC cohort was 106.6 μg/day. In the fully adjusted model, estimated dietary iodine intake was found to be significantly negatively associated with placental weight (β = −0.025, 95% CI: -0.044; −0.006, p = 0.011). Moreover, estimated dietary iodine intake was found to be significantly positively associated with the birth weight / placental weight ratio in the fully adjusted model (β = −0.024, 95% CI: 0.004; 0.043, p = 0.016).ConclusionsThis study provides evidence of a relationship between estimated dietary iodine intake and placental weight and the birth weight / placental weight ratio. Additional research is warranted to provide more insight into the role of iodine in early as well as late placentation.

Sociodemographic and delivery risk factors for developing postpartum depression in a sample of 3233 mothers from the Czech ELSPAC study

BackgroundIn the postpartum period, certain groups of women are at a higher risk for developing depressive episodes. Several studies have described risk factors for developing postpartum depression (PPD). However, these studies have used limited numbers of participants, and therefore the estimated prevalence of PPD varies greatly.MethodsThe objective of this study is to identify the main risk factors for developing PPD by using data collected via the Czech version of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC). This database provides a representative sample (n = 7589) observed prospectively and a large amount of data on depressive symptoms and on biological, socioeconomic, and environmental factors.The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) was used to screen for incidence of PPD. The affective pathology was examined at three time points: before delivery, 6 weeks after delivery, and 6 months after delivery.ResultsThe prevalence of depressive symptoms before delivery was 12.8%, 6 weeks after delivery 11.8%, and 6 months after delivery 10.1%. The prevalence rates are based on women who completed questionnaires at all three time-points (N = 3233).At all three time points, the main risk factors for developing PPD identified as significant by both univariate and multivariate analysis were personal history of depressive episodes and mothers experiencing psychosocial stressors. Other risk factors occurring in both types of analysis were: family history of depression from expectant mother’s paternal side (prenatal), mothers living without partners (6 weeks postpartum) and feelings of unhappiness about being pregnant (6 months postpartum). Several protective factors were also observed: male child gender (prenatal), primiparous mothers (6 months postpartum), and secondary education (prenatal, only by multivariate analysis).Significant risk factors found solely by univariate analysis were family history of depression in both parents of the expectant mother (prenatal and 6 weeks postpartum), family history of depression from subject’s maternal side (6 months postpartum), unintentional pregnancy (prenatal and 6 weeks postpartum), feelings of unhappiness about being pregnant (prenatal and 6 weeks postpartum), primary education (prenatal and 6 weeks postpartum), mothers who opted not to breastfeed (6 months postpartum) and mothers living without partners (prenatal and 6 months postpartum). Family savings were identified as protective factor (prenatal and 6 months postpartum).ConclusionsWe identified significant predictors of PPD. These predictors can be easily detected in clinical practice, and systematic screening can lead to identifying potentially at risk mothers. Since the risk is linked with experience of psychosocial stressors it seems that they might benefit from increased psychosocial support to prevent affective pathology.

Cohort Profile: The European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) in the Czech Republic.

The Czech ELSPAC study was set up as a part of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC). ELSPAC was designed as a population-based prospective longitudinal birth cohort study to investigate the effects of biological, psychosocial, economic and environmental factors on pregnancy, delivery and subsequent child´s development and health. The study was initiated by the World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe in 1985, with the aim to enrol 40 000 children across Europe. Seven independent centres—ALSPAC, Isle of Man, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Greece and Russia—joined the project, coordinated by Professor Golding at Bristol University, UK. The coordination centre was also responsible for most of the protocol development, including follow-up planning and questionnaire design. Enrolment of the Czech participants started in 1991. In addition to the primary aims of ELSPAC, the Czech team was interested also in the effects of the profound socioeconomic changes related to the societal transformation after the fall of Communism in 1989.

Fears in Czech Adolescents

The present study investigates developmental patterns of fear in adolescence. It is based on longitudinal data collected as a part of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) project. A total of 186 Czech adolescents (43% girls) were assessed repeatedly at the age of 11, 13, and 15 years. The free-response method was used to examine individual-specific fears. Fear occurrence, content, and intensity changes in 19 general fear categories in the age groups studied were investigated. The findings reveal that the most common fears of 11- and 13-year-old adolescents were related to school. However, at the age of 15, the most common fear category was the fear of losing someone, or the fear of something happening to somebody. Furthermore, we found that developmental trajectories of fear categories are characterized by a transition from the specific and concrete fears of childhood to the more general and abstract fears of adolescents.

Moderate Alcohol Consumption as a Mediator of a Mother's Behavior towards Her Child

The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of moderate drinking on mother's behaviour towards her child. The European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) survey sample consisted of 3,569 Czech women, who were interviewed when their children were 18 months old. There were three areas related to mother child relationship investigated: hygiene, activities with the child, and the mother's emotional relationship with the child. Besides alcohol consumption, we also evaluated the mother's neuroticisms. Our results suggest that the behaviour of moderate drinking mothers differs from the behaviour of abstaining mothers. The abstinents express more emotions for the child, they handle better the demands of maternity and pay more attention to needs for child's educative activities. Significant differences were not noticed in the frequency of physical activities with the child (cuddling, physical playing, walks). Our data supports the assumption that moderate drinking of a mother is disadvantageous for the child as compared to abstinence. The abstinents display a higher level of concern about the child.

Risk factors for wheezing in Ukrainian children: Ukraine European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood Group

The prevalence of wheezing in children varies widely around the world. The reasons for this geographic variability remain unclear but may be related in part to exposures in the home environment during pregnancy and early childhood. We investigated the prenatal and early childhood risk factors for wheezing symptoms among 2127 children aged 6-8 years who were participants in the Ukrainian component of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC). Cases included the 169 children whose parents answered yes to the International Study of Asthma and Allergy in Children (ISAAC) question: 'Has your child had wheezing or whistling in the chest in the past 12 months' during the ELSPAC assessment of the children at age 7. These were compared with the 1861 children in the cohort whose parents answered 'no' to this question. Factors significantly associated with increased risk of wheezing illness at age 7 in adjusted analyses included mother's asthma [adjusted odds ratio (OR) 3.46, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.22, 9.85]; mother's allergy problems (OR 1.43, [1.00, 2.05]); rarely playing with other children at age 3 (OR 1.84, [1.09, 3.11]); water intrusion (OR 1.62, [1.09, 2.39]) and inadequate heating of the home (OR 1.52, [1.06, 2.16]) during pregnancy. Factors protective of wheezing at age 7 included being first-born (adjusted OR 0.70, 95% CI 0.50, 0.98); living in the city of Dniprodzerzynsk as compared with Kyiv (OR 0.36, [0.24, 0.54]) and weekly contact with furry animals (OR 0.44, [0.20, 0.97]) before age 3. The constellation of risk factors for wheezing in Ukrainian children is similar to that of children in other parts of the world. Known risk factors do not account for the significant between-city variability of wheezing in Ukrainian children.

Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy, Behavioral Problems and School Performances of Their School-Aged Children

Child behavior and school performance is influenced by many genetic and environmental factors including prenatal exposure to chemical neurotoxins contained in cigarette smoke. The European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) prospective study which in the Czech Republic incorporates a cohort of children born in the years 1991/2 in Brno city and the Znojmo district also allows to analyze the relationships between prenatal cigarette smoke exposure and the occurrence of behavior and learning disorders. Using questionnaires repeatedly filled in by teachers and investigation protocols performed by research team workers data for the Brno sample of children was collected on the occurrence of signs indicating more serious problems with school assignment fulfilling and behavior disorders in the childrens' 8, 11 and 13 years of age. According to mothers' statements about their smoking behavior during pregnancy, the children were divided into two groups: prenatally exposed and non-exposed. The frequency differences of individual traits were evaluated in the SPSS statistical program (Pearson's chi2 test and linear associations, probability relations). In the ELSPAC study set the occurrence of inferior schoolwork performance evaluated based on term-report grades was more frequent in children prenatally exposed to mothers' smoking, along with more frequently diagnosed disorders which to significant extent implicate these inferior results and also special care needs occurred more frequently when compared to their peers born to non-smoking mothers. In the prenatally exposed subset also more frequent occurrence of various signs characterizing behavior disorders including attention disorders, hyperactivity, aggressiveness and signs of delinquency behavior were recorded. The Czech ELSPAC cohort confirmed the results of other studies; within it was documented that children born to smoking mothers have more frequent behavioral problems and problems with fulfilling their school assignments in the school age period.

Trends in Respiratory Morbidity of Children in Relation to their Passive Smoking Exposure

Exposure of children to passive smoking is significantly associated with respiratory morbidity. Youngest children between 0-2 years are harmed in the most significant way, while, together with the growing age a decrease is observed of prevalence of respiratory diseases and influence of passive smoking. During repeated investigations of children from European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC) it was assessed, whether and how in the period from the birth to five years of age varied the rate of children exposed to environment filled with smoke and what were the differences in the frequency of diseases among the groups of children with different exposure level. Some selected characteristics of health were chosen from documentation provided in the 6th, 18th month and 5 years of children's age and processed in four children groups that differ in smoking behaviour of their mothers. The differences were statistically assessed in SPSS programme. In all compared age categories were children of smoking mothers more often exposed to stay in environment filled with smoke: children of middle and heavy smokers more, children of light smokers less. In all groups of smoking mothers, children were more often protected from exposure to passive smoking in the age of six months than after they reached 18 months and 5 years of age: differences were mostly statistically significant on the level of 1% of significance. Attending the kindergarten presents significant protecting factor for five years old children: they are more exposed during weekends than on week days (p < 0.001, resp. p < 0.01). Both respiratory symptomatology and morbidity were highly significantly increased in previous life periods of those children, whose mothers smoked. At the age of five, life in smoking household causes more frequent incidence of asthmatic symptomatology: wheezing and apnoe, and higher prevalence of allergies against home and pollen dust with breathlessness and wheezing as well (p < 0.05). ELSPAC study ascertained significant influence of maternal smoking on children's health in relation to passive smoking. Consequences of exposure clinically manifest themselves especially in increased incidence of respiratory and allergic morbidity.

Home radon levels and seasonal correction factors for the Isle ofMan

Ionizing radiation dose levels due to home radon can rise to levels that wouldbe illegal for workers in the nuclear industry. It is well known that radonlevels within homes and from home to home, and also from month to month, varyconsiderably. To define an Isle of Man radon seasonal correction factor,readings were taken in eight homes over a 12 month period. An average islandindoor exposure of 48 Bq m-3 (range 4-518 Bq m-3) was determined from 285 homes selected from a cohort of1300 families participating in the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancyand Childhood (ELSPAC) in the Isle of Man. This compares with a UK homeaverage of 20 Bq m-3 and a European Union average (excludingUK) of 68 Bq m-3. Ten homes of those measured were found tohave radon levels above the National Radiological Protection Board 200 Bq m-3 action level. There are 29 377 homes on the Isle of Man,suggesting that there could be some 900 or more homesabove the action level. No statistical difference was found between the NRPBand Isle of Man seasonal correction factors.

Working women, their emotional well-being and pregnancy in Greece

The study investigates the relationship between occupational status during preg-nancy and depression in the post-partum period. A sample of 2831 married women, physically healthy during pregnancy and of Greek nationality, was drawn from the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood (ELSPAC). Three to four days post-partum, women answered a questionnaire exploring retrospectively their own and their partners' lifestyle and physical and psychosocial well-being. Taking parental status into account, the study examined whether age, education, perceived social support, locus of control, impact of stressful life events, activity level and perceived satisfaction with work, moderated the relationship between occupational status during pregnancy and psychological well-being post-partum. The results showed that employment status only explains depression in multiparous women. Social support, internal locus of control, decreased impact of life events and increased activity during pregnancy have a beneficial effect on depression of both multiparous and primiparous women. Giving up work during pregnancy did not appear to differentiate between the two groups of women in terms of depression. Reasons for stopping work or the time of doing so were not found to predict depression. Results are discussed with reference to the current Greek sociocultural context.