Issues concerning pensions are of obvious importance not only for European Union Member States, but for the entire EU as well, even if the latter formally is only concerned with questions of their cross-border mobility, consumer protection and the internal market, while pension sustainability forms part of macroeconomic policy co-ordination within the EU. In this regard, the Union has i.a. set minimum requirements for the operation of institutions for occupational retirement provision (IORPs), and created a dedicated legal framework for a pan-European personal pension product (PEPP). It is therefore worthwhile attempting to synthetically analyse implementation of the acts of European Union secondary law on these, especially in the light of the most recent documents on the matters in question produced by EU institutions. These analyses conclude, that the Union’s actions have not been effective so far either in strengthening the role of occupational pensions provided by IORPs, cross-border activity of which remains unevenly spread, concentrated in a few Member States where occupational pensions had already been traditionally rooted, or in establishing PEPP, which continues to be off to a very slow start, thus not becoming a viable retirement saving option for EU citizens compared to other products available.

Just over a year after defending my dissertation, Harmonising the Acts of Patent Infringement in Europe, I reflect on two of its main contributions: first, the role of judicial dialogue in fostering harmonisation, and second, how the Court of Justice of the European Union’s case law on supplementary protection certificates may offer clues as to how the Court will approach preliminary references concerning the Unitary Patent. I submit that the harmonisation of European patent law remains a work in progress rather than a settled or finalised system.

Background: The study looks at the criminal implications for the death of a woman undergoing an abortion in the context of Islamic Sharia and the legal frameworks of Jordan, the United Arab Emirates, and Europe. The main concern of this study is how to preserve the mother's life while protecting the fetus, which raises sensitive questions about the legal definition of abortion that causes death. The study problem stems from the lack of explicit provisions in Emirati law and in the legislation of France and Poland that criminalize this composite conduct, in contrast to the explicit regulation found in Jordanian law. The study aims to clarify the Islamic Sharia's perspective on abortion crimes and the consequential death of the pregnant woman. Method: The study uses a comprehensive comparative analytical methodology that systematically contrasts relevant Islamic Sharia rulings with the Jordanian, Emirati, French, and Polish legal frameworks governing abortion and the legal consequences of death resulting from it. The study's objectives are to identify similarities and differences between religious and positive law, assess their impact on criminal liability, and assess how well each legal system balances the protection of fetal life with consideration for individual rights and medical necessity. It accomplishes this by critically examining judicial interpretations, statutory provisions, and doctrinal sources. Results and Conclusions: The study draws several important conclusions, chief among them being that both Jordanian and Emirati laws are in line with Islamic Sharia in that they forbid abortion unless necessary, and criminalize both abortion and the killing of a pregnant woman while imposing penalties for both. In contrast to Jordanian law, which specifically forbids abortion that results in death, Emirati and European laws permit abortion in cases of fetal malformation. The study also identifies shortcomings in Emirati law concerning the escalation of penalties. Therefore, in accordance with the Jordanian legislative approach, the study suggests adding a specific clause to Emirati law that criminalizes abortion that results in death and imposes harsher penalties. It also addresses circumstances where criminal liability increases following the issuance of a final judgment for abortion.

Social security law has traditionally been designed to regulate a specific exchange: work performed in return for remuneration. Since the primary purpose of traineeships is not remuneration, applying social security law to trainees is often difficult or ineffective. This contribution explores the challenge of ensuring adequate social security protection for trainees in the absence of (sufficient) remuneration, with a particular focus on the Belgian context. We begin by examining a recent decision of the European Committee of Social Rights concerning the right to fair remuneration for trainees in Belgium. Based on this decision, we conclude that unpaid or poorly paid traineeships are not prohibited under the European Social Charter, provided they include a genuine educational component. Given that unpaid or underpaid traineeships are not outlawed, we then assess how the lack of (sufficient) remuneration affects trainees’ access to social security. In Belgium, the social security scheme for salaried workers applies only to those who work for pay, which excludes trainees. Furthermore, the two specific branches that have been extended to include trainees - covering occupational accidents and occupational diseases - were originally intended to protect paid employment. To adapt these branches to trainees, the minimum wage, which is denied to them under labour law, paradoxically re-emerges as a reference point for calculating the economic loss resulting from an accident or illness. A comparison of the Belgian case with the systems in France and Spain shows that the more social security coverage is detached from remuneration, the more the financial burden of that coverage shifts to the collectivity. Finally, we consider whether international and European law require Belgium to extend the social security coverage of trainees to include other branches (unemployment, pensions, etc.). In this regard, we conclude that, like national legislation, international and European legal frameworks remain primarily focused on paid employment.

Bilateral deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a well-accepted treatment for advanced Parkinson's disease (PD). Currently, programming of the DBS is done in a trial-and-error manner and it can take up to 12 months to reach optimal stimulation parameters. Technological advances in electrode design and implantable pulse generator capabilities lead to an almost infinite number of stimulation options. To explore the potential benefit of all these technological advances, a conventional trial-and-error approach is no longer sufficient. Consequently, there is a clear need for a more computational approach to programming DBS systems. This pilot study is a prospective trial to prove the feasibility of programming bilateral STN-DBS for PD in a computational fashion based on patient anatomy, electrode position and brain connectivity. In this study, we aim to assess the safety, practical feasibility and technical feasibility of a computational approach for programming newly implanted STN-DBS patients with PD. This computational approach will be based on a patient-specific DBS setting regarding sweet spots and structural connectivity of the STN. The results of this pilot study will be used to develop a computational approach for DBS programming to use in a future randomised clinical trial. The iDBS trial will be a prospective randomised feasibility study carried out at the Radboud university medical center. A total of 24 patients with PD eligible for bilateral STN-DBS surgery implanted with Boston Scientific Cartesia leads will be included. Patients will be randomised to receive either (1) computational DBS programming (n=12) or (2) conventional DBS programming based on monopolar review (n=12). The primary endpoints are safety (occurrence of stimulation-induced side effects, duration of induced side effects (temporary or permanent), severity of the stimulation-induced side effects) and technical feasibility (time from surgery to DBS initiation, time from surgery to reaching optimal DBS stimulation settings) of the computational workflow. Ethical approval for this study has been granted by the Medical Ethical Committee region Arnhem-Nijmegen, the Netherlands (2024-17453). This study will be conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and all applicable European and Dutch law. All participants will have to provide written informed consent. Results of the study will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals and conferences. The study is registered in the OMON-registry (NL87334.091.24, NL-OMON57446).

Greenwashing is a generic term used for breaches of various legal provisions ranging from unfair competition, securities rules and unethical advertising to wrong corporate disclosure. This paper focuses on corporate disclosure rules with a focus on banks as deposit taking institutions. Against the background of the large needs for private sources of sustainability financing in order to meet the objectives of the European Climate Law (ECL), the EU sustainability corporate reporting and due diligence as well as the EU Taxonomy constitute an ambitious legislative framework aimed at establishing harmonized and comparable sustainability corporate data among firms and across time. This framework is a cornerstone for combating greenwashing because it raises the responsibility for inaccurate disclosure. The success of the regulatory framework will heavily rely on its credible implementation, including penalties, that will contribute to anchoring the expectations and conditioning the behaviour of economic agents. The paper concludes that this regulatory framework is far reaching and effective. The paper also formulates a number of recommendations for the way forward and sets out that any future legal framework for greenwashing should be linked to the corporate sustainability disclosure framework.

The article examines current problems that necessitate updating the tax legislation of Ukraine. The purpose of the article is to analyze the problems of adapting Ukrainian tax legislation to the legislation of the European Union in the context of modern challenges (the legal regime of martial law and post-war reconstruction) with the identification of individual ways to solve them. The study of this issue was conducted using various methods (comparative law, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, and others). The relevance of updating tax legislation in accordance with the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union is emphasized. It is argued that Ukraine, despite martial law, continues to reform the tax administration mechanism (using the example of the National Revenue Strategy until 2030, amendments to the Tax Code of Ukraine). Attention is focused on the importance of adopting the Law of Ukraine “On Amendments to the Tax Code of Ukraine and Other Legislative Acts of Ukraine Regarding Payment Services” dated January 12, 2023 No. 2888-IX. In particular, to update the norms of the Tax Code of Ukraine regarding the opening and closing of taxpayer accounts in banks, other financial institutions, non-bank payment service providers and electronic wallets in electronic money issuers. The need for such changes is justified due to a certain inconsistency of the norms of the previous version of Articles 69 and 20 of the Tax Code of Ukraine with European standards. The amendments to Chapters 11 and 12 of the Tax Code of Ukraine and their adaptation to the norms of European law were separately analyzed. Some gaps in the norms of these chapters and the terminological apparatus of Article 14 were identified. In order to comply with the European principle of legal certainty, the following changes have been proposed: to apply only one financial sanction for a committed tax offense - a financial fine, and to consider the penalty as a means of ensuring tax payment. Other ways of updating the norms of the Tax Code of Ukraine and formulating them in compliance with European standards and rules of legal technique (reduction of duplicate norms, redundant and unfounded norms, etc.) are also outlined. The main conclusions obtained are to determine ways to improve the Tax Code of Ukraine and, separately, its terminology by adapting it to the law of the European Union. Keywords: tax legislation of Ukraine, tax administration, European Union law, Tax Code of Ukraine, terminology, financial responsibility, tax offense, financial sanction, financial fine, penalty.

ABSTRACT The judicial field has emerged as a crucial arena for the contentious politics of migration in the European Union (EU). Both people on the move and the civil society organisations (CSOs) assisting them initially entered this arena to defend themselves from criminalisation. This inherently defensive stance, however, has increasingly been paralleled by a new, active approach to litigation that leverages the judicial system as a platform for political contention. This development is especially evident among organisations conducting rescue operations at sea, which have progressively used litigation as a tactic of resistance against state-led repression. The legal mobilisation strategies of CSOs involved in maritime rescue operations off the coast of Libya can be better understood by disentangling their engagement with international, European and Italian law. Based on this analysis, three distinct but overlapping legal mobilisation phases can be identified, each responding to the different mechanisms, challenges and opportunities provided by international, European and Italian jurisdictions.

Introduction: The judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union of 18 December 2025 in the Deity Shoes case makes a significant contribution to the interpretation of the regime for Community designs established in Regulation (EC) No 6/2002. The dispute arose from a conflict in the footwear sector and raised the question of whether designs resulting from the selection and combination of components from suppliers' catalogs can access the legal protection provided for in that Regulation, as well as the role of fashion trends in assessing individual character. Objective: To critically examine the reasoning of the Court of Justice of the European Union and assess its consequences for the interpretation and application of European industrial design law. Materials and methods: The research is developed using a legal-doctrinal methodology based on the analysis of the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union, European regulations on industrial designs and specialized academic literature. Results: This study examined the Court's reasoning on three issues: the absence of a "minimum degree of design" requirement; the interpretation of "individual character" in the context of catalog use; and the relevance of fashion trends in assessing the overall impression on the informed user. It also analyzed the implications for European design law in sectors with rapidly evolving aesthetics. Conclusions: The judgment reinforces an objective conception of industrial design, focused on the perception of the informed user rather than the creative effort of the designer, consolidating external and verifiable criteria that facilitate its practical application.

Abstract This article analyses the influence of developments in canon law on European international law between the 12th and 16th centuries. It discusses the construction of sovereignty; the role of canonical civil procedure in regulating disputes between princes; and efforts by canonists to limit the destruction caused by medieval warfare. Throughout, historical examples are provided to illustrate the effects of these developments in practice. The article concludes that medieval canon law had the effect of constraining sovereign power and limiting the prince’s ability to act with impunity.

The aim of the article is, based on a summary of the development of legal regulation of geographical indications at the international level, to draw attention to the problem of inconsistent legal regulation of geographical indications in different countries and the resulting problems for authorised holders of these indications. The article clarifies the specific nature of this intellectual property right and the continuous conflict between the states of the old (EU) and the new world (USA, Canada, Australia). A contradiction between the European system of protection of geographical indications sui generis and Common Law protection through certification and collective trademarks is identified. The EU and developing countries argue that a different level of protection will allow competitors who do not fall within the geographical area of the protected geographical indication to ‘parasitise’ on the reputation of the products, while the rightful holders of GI rights cannot defend themselves against such abuse if the unauthorised producer indicates the true origin of the product. An evaluation of the Geneva Act as an attempt to bridge the conflict is carried out. The Geneva Act improves and simplifies the international registration procedure not only for designations of origin, but also for geographical indications in countries that are not members of the Geneva Act. In conclusion, the direction of the new European legislation implemented by Regulations 2024/1143 and 2023/2411 is analysed, and the “intransigence” of European states to remain in the sui generis system based on practically unlimited protection of geographical indications is stated. The historical-legal and theoretical-legal methods were used in the research.

Artificial intelligence governance in Latin America is emerging through new legislative proposals that increasingly draw on the European Union’s Artificial Intelligence Act. This article asks how Latin American countries are designing artificial intelligence oversight and enforcement mechanisms, and whether they are replicating the European institutional model for supervisory authorities. Existing scholarship has examined the circulation of European regulatory models in data protection law, but it has not yet adequately addressed how that influence operates in the early institutional design of artificial intelligence governance in Latin America. The article develops a comparative legal analysis of the Ibero-American context, with particular focus on Brazil and Chile, in order to assess how European regulatory templates are received, adapted, and operationalized. It argues that Latin American artificial intelligence regulation is likely to follow a pattern already observed in second-generation data protection reforms: the adoption of broad statutory frameworks inspired by European law, but reshaped by local institutional capacities, budgetary constraints, and regional political economy. The analysis shows that the central dilemma concerns whether to extend the mandate of existing data protection authorities to artificial intelligence or to establish specialized supervisory agencies. Brazil and Chile illustrate two especially significant pathways, given Brazil’s regional influence within BRICS and MERCOSUR and Chile’s role as an open economy deeply integrated into transnational digital governance networks. The article contributes to comparative scholarship on artificial intelligence regulation by showing how supervisory design becomes a crucial site of legal translation between European regulatory influence and Latin American institutional realities.

This paper analyzes the evolution of the concept of “agreement” in European Union competition law, with particular reference to the application of Article 101(1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) in the digital context. The point of departure is the traditional understanding of an agreement as the expression of a concurrence of wills between market participants (“meeting of minds”), which, through the practice of the European Commission and the Court of Justice of the European Union, has acquired a broad and functional meaning. The paper specifically examines the Eturas judgment, which for the first time recognized that a digital platform may operate as a means of anticompetitive coordination between competitors. This case marks a turning point in the development of the doctrine of concerted practices, as it introduces the possibility of coordination occurring even in the absence of direct human contact. The paper further considers the typology of algorithmic coordination as an analytical framework for assessing whether algorithmic mechanisms may give rise to an agreement or a concerted practice within the meaning of Article 101(1) TFEU. The author concludes that contemporary technological developments require a reassessment of the classical notion of agreement in competition law and a shift of focus from the concurrence of wills toward the foreseeable anticompetitive effects of algorithmic systems — from the “meeting of minds” to the “meeting of algorithms.

The article deals with the question to what extent the objectives of the codification idea (legislative planfulness, concept-led consistent systematisation, substantive completeness, complexity-reducing abstraction, law transcending purpose) are compatible with the constitutional integration concept (both substantive and organisational) of the European Union. It assesses the impact of these elements and the Union´s constitutional concept of integration on the failure of the projects of the Constitutional Treaty for Europe (CTE) and of the Common European Sales Law (CESL) in a comparative manner. Eventually it draws as lesson to be learnt for future codification projects at the European level to pursue a careful approach to sovereignty-related or identity-related issues inherent in an international federal polity, shows the chances for codifications below this threshold and outlines the consequences for the future successful handling of the main codification purposes in the more sensitive projects.

of Law, as well as iconic professors and researchers of European civil law whose careers have intersected with that of Professor Vks's at several points, solemnly greeted him on his birthday.The ceremonial event, where the speakers delivered their presentations, 1 took place at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences on 8 November 2024, as part of a full-day conference.The event, of course, provided an opportunity not only for heartwarming and friendly greetings, 2 but also for an intensive and thought-provoking legal exchange following the presentations.The lectures gave an overview of several aspects of civil law codification, such as some evergreen and crucial issues concerning the connections and intersections between 'common law' and 'civil law'.The audience could discover new details and had the chance to follow the lecturers on their exciting spiritual journey.The conference presentations had several dimensions, and while not all the lectures are published here, the reader may perceive the depth and comprehensiveness of the scientific impact of this international event. 1 Besides the presentations, which are published in the following -CISG and Unforeseeable Events by Ulrich Magnus, Codifications at European Level by Peter-Christian Mller-Graff, Codification in the Common Law by John Cartwright, The Civil Law's Common Law by Christian von Bar and Learning from the Common Law?The Binding Nature of the Hungarian Curia's Judgments by Pter Grdos -other speakers also appeared at the conference: Helmut Koziol with the lecture Learning from the Common Law?Caveats from the Civil Law's Perspective, Attila Menyhrd with the lecture The Role of the Courts and Legislator in Shaping Private Law, dm Fuglinszky with the lecture One Last Time on Non-cumul and Balzs Tkey with the lecture General Part of Civil Codes: Advantages and Disadvantages.

Abstract This paper analyzes the intellectual foundations and evolution of the European Journal of Law and Economics (EJLE) over its first thirty years. We first reconstruct the European intellectual traditions underlying law and economics—Enlightenment thought, the German Historical School, ordoliberalism, and comparative institutional analysis—and their role in shaping the journal’s founding mission. We then complement this historical analysis with a comprehensive, data-driven study of all EJLE articles published since 1994. Using topic modeling (BERTopic) and abstract-similarity clustering, we document the journal’s thematic structure, its evolution over time, and changes in authorship, collaboration, and geographic composition. The results highlight both continuity and rebalancing within a methodologically plural and institutionally grounded research agenda.

On June 11, 2025, Disney and Universal Studios filed a lawsuit against artificial intelligence (hereinafter: AI) company Midjourney for copyright infringement. This is the first lawsuit filed by major Hollywood companies against an AI company, and therefore it has the potential to establish a significant precedent for generative AI. Having this in mind, the author will attempt to examine the legal issues presented by generative AI and its implications for copyright protection. This paper is a comparative study of U.S. and European law with respect to the challenges posed by generative AI, and it proposes solutions to these issues, taking into account the differences in these legal traditions. Through the use of legal-dogmatic and comparative methods, as well as case study, analytic, and synthetic methods, the author aims to identify a universal solution to the global problem represented by AI – a problem that has been brought to the forefront by this and many other lawsuits.

Following the entry into force of the European Union (EU) Nature Restoration Regulation, the practice of reintroducing large herbivores into European natural areas for nature restoration purposes has become significantly more relevant. Domesticated species, such as cattle (Bos taurus), horses (Equus caballus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) are commonly used in those reintroductions to fulfill the ecological roles of their extinct wild counterparts. Legal frameworks guiding such reintroductions vastly differ depending on the answer to the legal question of whether these species are to be considered ‘wild’ or ‘kept’ animals. The objective of this article is to ascertain the current legal status of large reintroduced herbivores used in natural grazing in the Netherlands, within the relevant frameworks of international, EU and Dutch law, through an analysis of those frameworks for available and applicable definitions. It finds the legal status of reintroduced herbivores is unclear and incoherent: legal frameworks lack satisfactory definitions and often the de iure status does not match the de facto status. This can seriously hamper reintroduction practices, as it creates legal uncertainty for practitioners, provides for obligations inconsistent with the goals of reintroduction and can lead to vast interpretative differences across and within EU Member States. This in turn can adversely affect nature conservation and restoration objectives within the Union and undermine its animal health and welfare framework. Following this conclusion, this article stresses the need and provides recommendations for EU legislative action to remedy this and thereby significantly advance successful reintroduction practices, as required by international and European law and policy.

This article explores the concept of an agent’s liability for breach of warranty of authority under English law. It examines the legal nature of such a warranty, the conditions under which it arises, and the consequences of its breach. It is argued that in English law, the warranty of authority constitutes a contractual undertaking by the agent, arising within the framework of a collateral agreement with the third party. Particular attention is paid to the criteria applied by courts in identifying the existence of such a warranty, as well as to the distinction between liability for breach of warranty of authority and liability for misrepresentation. The article reviews key judicial decisions that have shaped the modern understanding of the warranty of authority doctrine. In addition, it analyses the agent’s liability under instruments of international private law harmonisation, including the Principles of European Contract Law and the UNIDROIT Principles. The article concludes by comparing the English approach with continental legal models and argues in favour of a contractual qualification of the agent’s liability under Article 183 of the Russian Civil Code.

Introduction: The escalation of conflicts in the Middle East has led to an increased risk of terrorism resurgence in Europe. During past terrorist incidents, inefficient interagency collaboration has repeatedly been identified as a key obstacle to an efficient response. This study aims to investigate the perspectives of European prehospital emergency medical providers and law enforcement officers on interagency collaboration during terrorist incidents. It seeks to identify barriers, best practices, and opportunities for enhancing collaboration. Methods: Interdisciplinary, international focus group interviews have been conducted online (at time of submission: nine interviews, 45 participants,13 European countries). Each interview has been analyzed using deductive coding for predefined topics, e.g., Command, Communication, and Hot Zone Care. Inductive coding has been used for additional content arising from the discussions. Results: The paucity of joint training opportunities and the need for political guidance were considered the most pressing issues. Interagency miscommunication, disparate situational awareness, and differing mindsets on the scene were identified to significantly impede provider safety on the scene. Within the national protocols of 73% (33/45) of participants, patient care inside the hot zone relied largely on police forces, including special forces. Concurrently, it has been emphasized that, due to a lack of resources, police forces are likely to focus not on patient care or evacuation but on threat elimination during the initial response phase. Additionally, evacuation resources have been identified as a bottleneck in transferring casualties from the hot zone to a safer zone. In summary, these factors create a therapeutic vacuum for casualties with potentially survivable injuries inside the hot zone. Conclusion: This study pronounces the need for joint training opportunities, which are anticipated to increase provider safety. Further, it highlights the urgent necessity of political commitment to set a framework that enables providers to diminish the therapeutic vacuum inside the hot zone.