The silver fir, Abies alba Mill., is a key species in European mountain forest ecosystems, which, despite being one of the few conifers with an available reference genome, lacked high quality transcriptomic information. Here, we present a de novo transcriptome assembly of this species, obtained using both short- and long-read sequencing data, from three different organs: leaves, stem, and roots. Saplings were subjected to different treatments, including cold, heat, drought, and darkness, in order to induce the expression of as many genes as possible to obtain a highly comprehensive representation of the silver fir’s transcriptome. The assembled transcriptome shows a completeness value of 94.8%, with 539,313 assembled transcripts, of which approximately 30% were functionally annotated. It constitutes the highest quality transcriptome available to date for A. alba, providing a valuable tool for further studies involving this species.

The impact of changing climate conditions on the stability, structure and biodiversity of forest ecosystems in Europe is well known. The main threat to trees is the continuous increase in temperature and changes in moisture conditions, especially in the soil. Very often, seedlings with a covered root system grown in container nurseries are used to rebuild forests or replace decaying spruce monocultures. The cultivation of such seedlings is carried out on a substrate whose main component is peat, the extraction of which poses a serious threat to the environment. Leaf nutrient stoichiometry offers an important indicator of the nutritional status of forest tree seedlings. This study assessed the potential of alternative peat-free substrates in nursery production and evaluated European beech and pedunculate oak seedlings with a covered root system, examining whether it ensured their proper nutrition and appropriate stoichiometric ratios of macroelements in the assimilation apparatus when compared to seedlings produced under the same conditions on a peat substrate. These studies were carried out in the production of beech and oak seedlings on innovative, organic, peat-free substrates using standard fertilization and a new fertilization developed by the research team. The peat-free substrates were characterized by higher concentrations of nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and phosphorus (P), which promote more effective growth. Our elemental leaf stoichiometry results indicate their excess in relation to standards, which suggests that plants can use these elements as reserves for the future. Results also showed strong correlations between the contents of elements in the soil and the growth parameters of seedlings. The peat-free substrates showed a beneficial effect on seedling growth, thus highlighting their potential as suitable substrates in nurseries.

Climate change and its associated extreme events are significantly impacting European forest ecosystems, with European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) being particularly vulnerable due to its high sensitivity to drought. This study investigates the role of phenotypic plasticity in xylem anatomical traits of beech from 15 provenances grown at three trial sites in Germany, representing different environmental conditions. Using quantitative wood anatomy, we assessed traits including mean ring width (MRW), mean vessel area (MVA), vessel density (VD), vessel grouping index (RVGI), and percentage of conductive area (RCTA). Our results reveal that site conditions have a stronger influence on MRW, MVA, and VD, while RVGI and RCTA are stronger affected by provenance. This suggests trait-specific plasticity, with some traits responding more to environmental factors than others. Notably, individual tree variability accounted for a substantial proportion of the observed differences, highlighting the role of intra-population genetic variation. Climate sensitivity was mainly site-dependent, with the northern trial site showing greater sensitivity to temperature, while the central and southern sites were more sensitive to drought. Interestingly, we found no clear relationship between the climatic origin of provenances and their xylem traits, challenging the assumption that provenances from warmer and drier regions are characterized by more drought-adapted xylem. The study underscores the complexity of predicting provenance performance under climate change and suggests that maintaining high genetic diversity may be more beneficial than selecting specific provenances for assisted migration. These findings contribute to improving forest management strategies for climate resilience.

Abstract. This study investigates the effects of tropospheric ozone (O3), a potent greenhouse gas and air pollutant, on European forests, an issue lacking comprehensive analysis at the site level. Unlike other greenhouse gases, tropospheric O3 is primarily formed through photochemical reactions, and it significantly impairs vegetation productivity and carbon fixation, thereby affecting forest health and ecosystem services. We utilise data from multiple European flux tower sites and integrate statistical and mechanistic modelling approaches to simulate O3 impacts on photosynthesis and stomatal conductance. The study examines six key forest sites across Europe – Hyytiälä and Värriö (Finland), Brasschaat (Belgium), Fontainebleau-Barbeau (France), and Bosco-Fontana and Castelporziano 2 (Italy) – representing boreal, temperate and Mediterranean climates. These sites provide a diverse range of environmental conditions and forest types, enabling a comprehensive assessment of O3 effects on gross primary production (GPP). We calibrated the Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES) model using observed GPP data to simulate different O3 exposure sensitivities. Incorporating O3 effects improved the model's accuracy across all sites, although the magnitude of improvement varied depending on site-specific factors such as vegetation type, climate and ozone exposure levels. The GPP reduction due to ozone exposure varied considerably across sites, with annual mean reductions ranging from 1.04 % at Värriö to 6.2 % at Bosco-Fontana. These findings emphasise the need to account for local environmental conditions when assessing ozone stress on forests. This study highlights key model strengths and limitations in representing O3–vegetation interactions, with implications for improving forest productivity simulations under future air pollution scenarios. The model effectively captures the diurnal and seasonal variability of GPP and its sensitivity to O3 stress, particularly in boreal and temperate forests. However, its performance is limited in Mediterranean ecosystems, where pronounced O3 peaks and environmental stressors such as high vapour pressure deficit exacerbate GPP declines, pointing to the need for improved parameterisation and representation of site-specific processes. By integrating in situ measurements, this research contributes to developing targeted strategies for mitigating the adverse effects of O3 on forest ecosystems.

The genus Quercus, which includes approximately 30 species, plays a vital role in European forest, urban, and suburban ecosystems. European oak stands have experienced episodic decline and death since the nineteenth century, with an increasing and consistent occurrence starting in the early decades of the twentieth century. Oak decline is a syndrome involving a variety of symptoms including canopy thinning, leaf chlorosis, microphyllia, dead branches, bark cracks, bleeding of dark exudates through the stem, inner tissue necrosis, and mortality. Abiotic and biotic stress factors, varying from site to site in exposure time and intensity, have triggered decline events in many regions of Europe. The most common nonliving factors that may be involved in oak decline are weather anomalies and extreme events (e.g., flooding, frost, hail, windstorms, heat waves, water shortage, and drought), as well as chemical air pollutants. Biotic factors include Phytophthora species, sap-sucking and defoliating insects (i.e., Tortrix viridana and Lymantria dispar), and secondary agents like bark- and wood-boring insects and latent pathogens. Among the latter, some Botryosphaeriaceae species, the xylariaceous charcoal canker pathogen Biscogniauxia mediterranea, and the oak anthracnose fungus Apiognomonia quercina have a prominent role. Other biotic stressors, occurring more sporadically with limited effects, are powdery mildews of the genus Erysiphe, wood decay fungi like Armillaria spp. and other wood-rotting basidiomycetes, and bacteria. Identifying the causal factors at specific sites faces the challenge of assessing the interplay of predisposing, inciting, and contributing factors. To mitigate oak decline, it may be necessary to create more resilient forests better adapted to global environmental changes and current disturbance regimes through integrated management incorporating proactive silviculture, innovative control methods of diseases and pests, and ecological restoration actions.

The European continent is rich in forest resources, with bark beetles being the most significant biological disturbance impacting European forest ecosystems. Over the past few decades, many trees have died due to bark beetle infestations, causing considerable economic damage to forestry. It is estimated that climate change will affect the distributional range of bark beetles, increasing the risk of outbreaks. However, the ability of different beetle populations to respond to climate change remains unknown. For this purpose, we selected nine species of bark beetles commonly found in Europe and constructed the MaxEnt model to simulate the distribution pattern of bark beetles under climatic conditions based on 21 environmental variables. Modeling projected changes in the distribution of different species of bark beetles under four climate scenarios for 2081–2100 using future climate variables and testing the hypothesis that narrow-ranged species are more vulnerable to climate change than wide-ranged species. The results show that the distribution of most bark beetles is influenced by temperature-related variables. With climate change, the suitable distribution areas for most species will expand and gradually shift to higher latitudes. Furthermore, most of northern Europe will be invaded by multiple bark beetle species in the future. These findings contribute to understanding the distributional dynamics of bark beetles in Europe under climate change, thereby facilitating the development of early-intervention strategies to reduce the risk and impact of species outbreaks.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-15546-z.

Abstract. Due to climate change, severe-drought events have become increasingly commonplace across Europe in recent decades, with future projections indicating that this trend will likely continue, posing questions about the continued viability of European forests. Observations from the most recent pan-European droughts suggest that these types of “hotter droughts” may acutely alter the carbon balance of European forest ecosystems. However, substantial uncertainty remains regarding the possible future impacts of severe drought on the European forest carbon sink. Dynamic vegetation models can help to shed light on such uncertainties; however, the inclusion of dedicated plant hydraulic architecture modules in these has only recently become more widespread. Such developments intended to improve model performance also tend to add substantial complexity, yet the sensitivity of the models to newly introduced processes is often left undetermined. Here, we describe and evaluate the recently developed mechanistic plant hydraulic architecture version of LPJ-GUESS and provide a parameterization for 12 common European forest tree species. We quantify the uncertainty introduced by the new processes using a variance-based global sensitivity analysis. Additionally, we evaluate the model against water and carbon fluxes from a network of eddy covariance flux sites across Europe. Our results indicate that the new model is able to capture drought-induced patterns of evapotranspiration along an isohydric gradient and manages to reproduce flux observations during drought better than standard LPJ-GUESS does. Further, the sensitivity analysis suggests that hydraulic process related to hydraulic failure and stomatal regulation play the largest roles in shaping the model response to drought.

Forest ecosystems cover almost 40% of the European land surface and play a vital role in mitigating the ongoing climate crisis. However, increasing climate extremes, such as droughts, heatwaves, and disturbances, pose significant challenges to forest health, ecosystem services, and societal benefits. Rapid and precise forest monitoring is essential for assessing these impacts and informing adaptive forest management. The ForestWard Observatory, a prototype developed within the Horizon Europe FORWARDS project, is designed to monitor and evaluate the impact of climate change on European forest ecosystems, enabling fast and informed decision-making for forest management. This observatory integrates a network of pilot plots co-located at existing forest monitoring stations, such as ICP Forests. The inclusion of past and present forest assessments, enabled by long-term monitoring programs like those that are implemented in the European Research Infrastructure eLTER, ensures a comprehensive understanding of climate-induced changes, their impacts, and feedbacks to global warming now and in the future. To expand already existing methodologies, the observatory applies the concept of "linking methods", combining standardized close to real-time data on water and carbon cycles with remote sensing technologies. One of the sites within this initiative is the eLTER research and monitoring station Zöbelboden, located in the Northern Limestone Alps in Austria, established in 1992. The site addresses three primary focus areas within FORWARDS: Stress nowcasting by utilizing soil and tree ecophysiological data to provide immediate assessments of ecosystem stress. For this the site was further equipped with point dendrometers which allow us to measure stem-growth and radial stem fluctuations in high resolution. Linking ground-based and remote sensing data by bridging local observations with large-scale remote sensing information. Multispectral imaging will be captured by drone, at the same time foliar sampling for pigment analysis will be carried out. Carbon storage and structural analysis by measuring carbon sequestration and forest stand structures. Terrestrial Laser Scan data has been gathered for the supersite and 15 surrounding plots. Stress nowcasting by utilizing soil and tree ecophysiological data to provide immediate assessments of ecosystem stress. For this the site was further equipped with point dendrometers which allow us to measure stem-growth and radial stem fluctuations in high resolution. Linking ground-based and remote sensing data by bridging local observations with large-scale remote sensing information. Multispectral imaging will be captured by drone, at the same time foliar sampling for pigment analysis will be carried out. Carbon storage and structural analysis by measuring carbon sequestration and forest stand structures. Terrestrial Laser Scan data has been gathered for the supersite and 15 surrounding plots. The Zöbelboden Forwards Site connects the existing eLTER Zöbelboden site to the ForestWard Observatory. This site represents temperate mountain mixed forests on carbonate bedrock typical of the European Alps. Equipped with modern technology and a robust data infrastructure, the Zöbelboden research and monitoring site will serve as a model for monitoring stressors, enhancing climate resilience, and fostering sustainable forest management across Europe.

The LAURA database is a resurvey dataset documenting long-term changes in forest vegetation across southwestern Poland. It currently includes 842 phytosociological relevés from 409 plots across 20 sites. The dataset covers a wide range of forest types, from lowland riparian forests up to subalpine woods. The database primarily relies on archival data collected between 1955 and 2000, which are revisited at the originally described locations, mostly in nature reserves. The average time span between surveys is 35 years, with a minimum of 14 years. The LAURA database provides valuable insights into the long-term effects of environmental change on forest communities. It may facilitate studies on species composition shifts, biodiversity trends, and forest succession in response to factors such as climate change, land-use history, and conservation efforts. Additionally, by integrating part of its dataset (35%) with forestREplot and ReSurveyEurope, it contributes to large-scale comparative analyses of European forest ecosystems.

The increasing rate of species extinction and declining environmental conditions necessitate a comprehensive understanding of habitats, including tree species diversity, which is a critical factor influencing forest ecosystem functions. Traditional methods of acquiring information on tree species, like forest inventories and field-based approaches, are often time-intensive, costly, and impractical for large-scale applications, making remote sensing a feasible alternative. This study compared and combined two multispectral remote sensing datasets, including Sentinel-2 (S2) and PlanetScope (PS), for tree species classification in two Austrian forest ecosystems: the riparian forests of the National Park Donau-Auen (NPDA), where nine tree species were distinguished, and the forests of the Biosphere Reserve Wienerwald (BRWW) where 12 species were investigated. Mono-temporal and multi-temporal data from S2 and PS were analyzed individually and in combination (S2 + PS). A robust reference dataset (835 samples in NPDA and 1,283 in BRWW) and a Random Forest algorithm with recursive feature selection were used for classifications. When comparing mono-temporal datasets, S2 consistently outperformed PS, achieving the highest overall accuracies of 63.7% for NPDA and 70.6% for BRWW, compared to 58.1% and 57.4% with PS. Using multi-temporal S2 data further enhanced classification accuracy, reaching 78.3% for NPDA and 83.3% for BRWW, while multi-temporal PS data achieved 74.4% and 77.7%, respectively. Combining datasets in NPDA demonstrates an improvement of 1.8 and 5.7 percentage points compared to the sole use of S2 and PS multi-temporal data, respectively. In BRWW, the improvement was 1.3 and 6.9 percentage points. Classification accuracies were higher in BRWW, likely due to its larger reference dataset and the inclusion of more phenologically and morphologically distinct tree species. Overall, this study highlighted the superior performance of S2, particularly in mono-temporal analyses, the added value of combining S2 and PS datasets, and the well-known advantages of using multi-temporal datasets. Notably, the study fairly distinguished between three closely related Poplar species, including Populus alba , Populus × canadensis , and Populus nigra, in riparian forests of NPDA, which is also of great interest from a nature conservation perspective. The outputs of this study can provide helpful information for new satellite missions. • Tree species were mapped using Sentinel-2 (S2), PlanetScope (PS), and combined data. • An in-depth comparison revealed the superior performance of S2 data. • The added value of the combined dataset was slight. • The well-known advantages of multi-temporal data were underscored. • Three closely related poplar species were successfully distinguished.

European yew (Taxus baccata L.) is a key tree species in forest ecosystems, contributing to biodiversity and ecosystem stability. However, its populations have declined significantly due to historical overexploitation, habitat fragmentation, and increasing environmental pressures, particularly under ongoing climate change. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the ecological characteristics, distribution, and silvicultural management of yew, emphasising its role in close-to-nature forest management. It discusses the species’ resilience to drought, shade tolerance and potential for adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Conservation strategies including natural and artificial regeneration, site-specific silvicultural interventions and the need for wildlife management to mitigate herbivore damage are also reviewed. The economic and pharmacological importance of yew, particularly as a source of taxanes for anticancer treatment, is also highlighted. The review also examines the sensitivity of the species to biotic and abiotic stressors and predicts its future distribution under climate change scenarios. The results highlight the need for targeted conservation measures, assisted migration, and adaptive forest management to sustain yew populations. Future research should integrate genetic diversity studies, climate modelling, and field-based silvicultural experiments to increase the species’ viability and ecological functions in European forest ecosystems.

ABSTRACTAimThe potential analogues in Earth's past may hold insight on how modern European forests will react to different levels of future warming. There is a lack of comparison between future warming and its most recent climate analogue 3.25 million years ago during the mid‐Piacenzian warm period. We have attempted to fill this knowledge gap by modelling the zonation of woody plant communities during the mid‐Pliocene and comparing it with their current distribution and predictions of their future distribution.LocationEurope.Time Period3.25–3 million years ago, 1970–2000, and 2081–2100.TaxonEuropean tree species.MethodsIn this study, we selected 15 European tree species from three main European forest ecosystems: Mediterranean, temperate and boreal species that had ancestors present in Europe during the mPWP. Then we applied an ensemble model using climatic data from the mPWP, modern and two future climate scenarios. In order to compare the models, we assessed the overlapped area as well as Dutilleul's modified t‐test in order to assess the spatial similarities in forest communities distribution between the mPWP and future warming.ResultsOur results showed that there is a clear northern trend in the northward shift of forest communities under all warming scenarios. Across all species, there is a clear drop in suitable area with the exception of Mediterranean species, where suitable area increased in all warm scenarios. When comparing the mPWP with future warming, there is evidence to support that RCP 4.5 will potentially exhibit similar conditions, while RCP 8.5 may result in highly novel habitats.Main ConclusionsAlthough mid‐Pliocene conditions are more analogous to the RCP 4.5, it raises an urgent ecological concern for adaptive forest management. Increasing temperatures and uncertain precipitation patterns have the potential to aid the expansion of Mediterranean forest communities while fragmenting temperate and boreal forest communities throughout central Europe.

European forests have experienced high nitrogen (N) deposition and soil acidification together with sulfur (S) deposition in the recent decades and are still facing challenges in some areas. In the context of elevated CO 2 and air temperature under climate change, the N deposition will initially promote the growth but in the long term it will accelerate nutrient imbalance and reduce tree health. Therefore, forest management must take these aspects into account. Many studies have been carried out on the effects of forest management approaches, i.e., liming, harvesting, and intercropping with other tree species on traits of trees, soil and ecosystem properties and fluxes, however, a comprehensive review summarizing the current consequences of nitrogen saturation and soil acidification in European forest, particularly if current forest management approaches are able to mitigate these consequences in the context of climate change, is still lacking. In our review, we summarize the consequences of N deposition and acidification on trees and soils of forest ecosystems, discuss the importance of the most commonly used management practices in mitigating these consequences, and provide information for future management practices in Europe. • European forests experienced high nitrogen and sulfur deposition. • Consequences of N deposition and acidification on forest ecosystems are summarized. • Effects of liming, harvesting and species change are discussed. • Combinations of forest management actions should be explored.

Assessing the ecological complexity and uncertainty of predicting forest ecosystem services under climate change

Ongoing climate change and associated extreme events strongly impact the growth and vitality of forest ecosystems in Europe. Because of its’ high drought sensitivity, European beech, which is considered as climax tree species in large parts of Central Europe, may specifically suffer. Hence, recent studies increasingly focus on the resistance and resilience of beech growth to climate change. Intra-specific variations in growth responses by comparing different beech provenances, however, received less attention, as did the question whether provenance selection can be used to mitigate potential future negative impacts of climate change. Therefore, we here investigated 24 provenances belonging to the International Beech Provenance Trial growing at three sites in Germany along a latitudinal gradient (study sites are referred to as ’North’, ‘Center’, ‘South’). Specifically, we compared tree-ring width (TRW), diameter breast height (DBH), climate-growth relationships, as well as drought resistance and resilience in the extreme years 2003 and 2018. Large differences in growth performance were observed between the three study sites. At site North, beech trees showed the highest DBH and TRW. Tree growth was predominantly driven by previous-year October and current-year winter temperature, whereas growth at sites Center and South was significantly impacted by summer SPEI and constrained by precipitation in late winter and early June, respectively. Overall, drought responses in 2003 were less variable than in 2018. We found increasing resistance and decreasing resilience from the wetter North to the drier South, but with minimal differences between the Center and the South. Whereas differences between study sites were large, provenance differentiation within sites was comparably low, substantiating that beech is a highly plastic tree species. Even though some provenances were found to perform slightly better or worse, differences were not statistically significant and show unclear patterns. Hence, we conclude that climate change will affect beech forests in Europe mainly depending upon site conditions, and that provenance selection may not ensure superior growth performance.

Background: Climate change is leading to severe and long-term droughts in European forest ecosystems. can have profound effects on various physiological processes, including photosynthesis, gene expression patterns, and nutrient uptake at the developmental stage of young trees. Objectives: Our study aimed to test the hypothesis that the application of silica (SiO2) influences photosynthetic efficiency and gene expression in 1- to 2-year-old Fagus sylvatica (L.) seedlings. Additionally, we aimed to assess whether silicon application positively influences the structural properties of leaves and roots. To determine whether the plant physiological responses are genotype-specific, seedlings of four geographically different provenances were subjected to a one-year evaluation under greenhouse conditions. Methods: We used the Kruskal-Wallis test followed by Wilcoxon's test to evaluate the differences in silicon content and ANOVA followed by Tukey's test to evaluate the physiological responses of seedlings depending on treatment and provenance. Results: Our results showed a significantly higher Si content in the roots compared with the leaves, regardless of provenance and treatment. The most significant differences in photosynthetic performance were found in trees exposed to Si treatment, but the physiological responses were generally nuanced and provenance-dependent. Expression of hsp70 and hsp90 was also increased in leaf tissues of all provenances. These results provide practical insights that Si can improve the overall health and resilience of beech seedlings in nursery and forest ecosystems, with possible differences in the beneficial role of silicon application arising from the large differences in wild populations of forest tree species.

The impact of atmospheric pollution on the growth of European forest tree species, particularly European beech, Silver fir and Norway spruce, is examined in five mesic forests in the Czech Republic. Analyzing of basal area increment (BAI) patterns using linear mixed effect models reveals a complex interplay between atmospheric nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) deposition, climatic variables and changing CO2 concentrations. Beech BAI responds positively to N deposition (in tandem with air CO2 concentration), with soil phosphorus (P) availability emerging as a significant factor influencing overall growth rates. Fir BAI, on the other hand, was particularly negatively influenced by S deposition, although recent growth acceleration suggests growth resilience in post-pollution period. This fir growth surge likely coincides with stimulation of P acquisition following the decline of acidic pollution. The consequence is the current highest productivity among the studied tree species. The growth dynamics of both conifers were closely linked to the stoichiometric imbalance of phosphorus in needles, indicating the possible sensitivity of exogenous controls on nutrient uptake. Furthermore, spruce BAI was positively linked to calcium availability across sites. Despite enhanced water-use efficiency under elevated CO2, spruce growth is constrained by precipitation deficit and demonstrates weakening resilience to increasing growing season air temperatures. Overall, these findings underscore the intricate relationships between atmospheric pollution, nutrient availability, and climatic factors in shaping the growth dynamics of European forest ecosystems. Thus, incorporating biogeochemical context of nutrient availability is essential for realistic modelling of tree growth in a changing climate.

The crises of climate change and biodiversity loss have pushed the aim for increasing the resilience of forest ecosystems high on the agenda of foresters and policymakers. At the same time, synergistic opportunities for restoring forests and biodiversity are emerging to safeguard these ecosystems. Naturalness is a key characteristic of forest ecosystems, which should be considered when estimating benchmarks for resilience and biodiversity conservation. The naturalness of forest ecosystems is highly dependent on the intensity of human activity, as different levels of management intensity can change the original traits of forest ecosystems. This paper presents an archetypal typology of forest ecosystems, describing the association between management and naturalness. Both features are represented as gradients covering the full spectrum observed in European forests. The array of forest ecosystem archetypes was verified using case studies across Europe. The typology provides useful information for setting targets for resilience and restoration of forest ecosystems.

Fungal non-pollen palynomorphs (fNPPs) are microscopic structures occurring in various sediments. In paleoecological studies, they can serve as reliable indicators of vegetation types, grazing activities, and human impact, enriching the interpretation of fossil data. This study explores the composition and taxonomic richness of fNPPs in 85 moss samples from a European lowland forest. We found rich fungal diversity, with 95 morphological types, predominantly saprotrophs, favoring specific substrates, like wood, decaying bark, herbaceous plant remains, litter, and freshwater habitats. Key taxa, such as type HdV-96A, and cf. Hypoxylon (EMA-24), were prevalent across different forest types, especially in deciduous forests. We identified two primary gradients of fNPP composition. The first axis delineated samples by taxonomic richness, Shannon index, and canopy openness, showing similarities among deciduous forests. The second axis ordered samples by the proportion of fNPPs, volume of stumps, coarse woody debris, and herbs pollen richness, highlighting their connections. Forest management intensity had minimal influence on fNPP composition, indicating consistent composition along both ordination axes. Forest type and herbs pollen richness, significantly affected the taxonomic richness and Shannon diversity of fNPPs. Deciduous forests exhibited higher fNPP richness, compared to coniferous forests, linked to increased herbs pollen richness. However, fNPPs decreased with increasing volume of stumps, coarse woody debris, and canopy openness, demonstrating the complexities of forest management’s influence on fungal diversity. This study pioneers fNPP investigation in an old-growth temperate forest ecosystem, emphasizing the interplay of forest characteristics, herbs diversity, and dead wood components in shaping their composition and richness. It also reveals differences in fNPP assemblages between deciduous and coniferous forests, underscoring the importance of forest type in shaping fungal diversity. These findings highlight the need for detailed studies on microhabitats, dead wood decomposition rates, and specific forest impacts to comprehensively understand forest ecosystem dynamics.

Terrestrial ecosystems such as coniferous forests in Central Europe are experiencing changes in health status following extreme droughts compounding with severe heat waves. The increasing temporal resolution and spatial coverage of earth observation data offer new opportunities to assess these dynamics. Dense time-series of optical satellite data allow for computing Dynamic Habitat Indices (DHIs), which have been predominantly used in biodiversity studies. However, DHIs cover three aspects of vegetation changes that could be affected by drought: annual productivity, minimum cover, and seasonality. Here, we evaluate the health status of coniferous forests in the federal state of Hesse in Germany over the period 2017–2020 including the severe drought year of 2018 using DHIs based on the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) for drought assessment. To identify the most important variables affecting coniferous forest die-off, a series of environmental variables together with the three DHIs components were used in a logistic regression (LR) model. Each DHI component changed significantly across non-damaged and damaged sites in all years (p-value 0.05). When comparing 2017 to 2019, DHI-based annual productivity decreased and seasonality increased. Most importantly, none of the DHI components had reached pre-drought conditions, which likely indicates a change in ecosystem functioning. We also identified spatially explicit areas highly affected by drought. The LR model revealed that in addition to common environmental parameters related to temperature, precipitation, and elevation, DHI components were the most important factors explaining the health status. Our analysis demonstrates the potential of DHIs to capture the effect of drought events on Central European coniferous forest ecosystems. Since the spaceborne data are available at the global level, this approach can be applied to track the dynamics of ecosystem conditions in other regions, at larger spatial scales, and for other Land Use/Land Cover types.