European Athletics Research Articles

Motivational profiles of sporting event volunteers

This article presents an approach for segmenting sporting event volunteers according to differences in their motives. Empirical data were obtained from a sample of 1169 volunteers who registered for the 2014 European Athletics Championships in Zürich. They completed the ‘Volunteer Motivation Scale for International Sporting Events’ (VMS-ISE) questionaire. The validity of the VMS-ISE was replicated by confirmatory factor analysis and the data were cluster analysed to identify distinct motivation-based volunteer profiles. These segmented volunteers on the basis of mutually exclusive motivational characteristics. The external validity of the four motivation-based types (‘community supporters’, ‘material incentive seekers’, ‘social networkers’ and ‘career and personal growth orienteers’) was confirmed with socio-economic, sport-related and volunteer activity-related variables. It is concluded that motivation-based segmentation represents a useful way of gaining a clearer understanding of the patterns underlying the heterogeneity of sporting events volunteers.

Triple impact assessments of the 2013 European athletics indoor championship in Gothenburg

ABSTRACTThis study answers the call for holistic assessments of events' sustainability through testing a model for measuring impacts of a sports tourism event from sustainability perspectives and in a common monetary metric. The aim is to achieve commensurability through integration of economic, sociocultural and environmental impacts. Concepts such as use- and non-use value, consumer surplus, direct economic impacts, ecological footprint analysis and shadow cost are applied to fulfil this aim. The model is tested on a three-day long European athletics indoor championship 2013 and the results demonstrate a possibility to produce a sustainability impact analysis in a uniform metric. Measured in monetary terms, sociocultural impacts carry more weight than economic impacts do, whereas environmental impacts have little importance for the total assessment. The assessment of event impacts in one common metric paves the way for destinations to trade-off alternatives and develop clear-cut strategies to increase social, economic and environmental welfare. It is suggested that prices on the market for emission rights severely underestimate environmental costs.

Tactical behaviour of winning athletes in major championship 1500-m and 5000-m track finals

This article analyses the tactics employed by middle-distance (1500-m) and long-distance (5000-m) runners from an observational methodology perspective. The subject of investigation has received little attention from specialists in the field of athletics, with most research focusing on physiological studies of athlete performance. Using an ad hoc observation tool and a database containing systematically recorded data we detected time patterns (T-patterns) within the data recorded using the Theme software program (version 5.0), and analysed the tactics employed by winners of the men's 1500-m and 5000-m finals of the World Championships in Athletics [Edmonton 2001, Paris 2003, Helsinki 2005 (1500-m final only), Osaka 2007 (1500-m final only), Berlin 2009 and Daegu 2011], the European Athletics Championships (Munich 2002, Göteborg 2006, and Barcelona 2010) and the Olympic Games (Sydney 2000, Athens 2004, Beijing 2008 and London 2012). T-pattern detection and investigation of the relationship between category systems corresponding to the criteria comprising the observation tool revealed both similarities (starting lane and lane used during race, runner's position during race and sprint zone and lane) and differences (variations in pace, zones in which changes of pace occur, sprint initiation zone and winner's position at the start of the sprint) between the two disciplines.

Analyses of Helsinki 2012 European Athletics Championships Injury and Illness Surveillance to Discuss Elite Athletes Risk Factors

To further analyze newly incurred injuries and illnesses (I&Is) during Athletics International Championships to discuss risk factors. Prospective recording of newly occurred injuries and illnesses. The 2012 European Athletics (EA) Championships in Helsinki, Finland. National team and local organizing committee physicians and physiotherapists and 1342 registered athletes. Incidence and characteristics of new injuries and illnesses. Ninety-three percent of athletes were covered by medical teams, with a response rate of 91%. One hundred thirty-three injuries were reported (incidence of 98.4 injuries per 1000 registered athletes). Sixty-two injuries (47%) resulted in time loss from sport. The most common diagnosis was hamstring strain (11.4% of injuries and 21% of time-loss injuries). Injury risk was higher in males and increased with age. The highest incidences of injuries were found in combined events and middle- and long-distance events. Twenty-seven illnesses were reported (4.0 illnesses per 1000 athlete days). The most common diagnoses were upper respiratory tract infection (33.3%) and gastroenteritis/diarrhea (25.9%). During outdoor EA Championships, injury and illness incidences were slightly lower and injury characteristics were comparable with those during outdoor World Athletics Championships. During elite athletics Championships, gender (male), age (older than 30 years), finals, and some events (combined events and middle- and long-distance races) seem to be injury risk factors. Illness risk factors remain unclear. As in previous recommendations, preventive interventions should focus on overuse injuries, hamstring strains, and adequate rehabilitation of previous injuries, decreasing risk of infectious diseases transmission, appropriate event scheduling, sports clothes, and heat acclimatization.

Extending in-competition Athletics injury and illness surveillance with pre-participation risk factor screening: A pilot study

ObjectivesTo explore the performance of retrospective health data collected from athletes before Athletics championships for the analysis of risk factors for in-competition injury and illness (I&I). MethodsFor the 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships, a self-report questionnaire (PHQ) was developed to record the health status of 127 athletes during the 4 weeks prior to the championship. Physician-based surveillance of in-competition I&I among all 577 athletes registered to compete was pursued during the championships. Results74 athletes (58.3%) from the sample submitted a complete PHQ. 21 (28%) of these athletes sustained at least one injury and/or illness during the championships. Training more than 12 h/week predisposed for sustaining an in-competition injury, and a recent health problem for in-competition illness. Among the 577 registered athletes, 60 injuries (104/1000 registered athletes) were reported. 31% of injuries were caused by the track, and 29% by overuse. 29 illnesses were reported (50/1000 registered athletes); upper respiratory tract infection and gastro-enteritis/diarrhoea were the most reported diagnoses. ConclusionsPre-participation screening using athletes' self-report PHQ showed promising results with regard to identification of individuals at risk. Indoor injury types could be attributed to extrinsic factors, such as small track size, track inclination, and race tactics.

Injury and illness risks during outdoor European athletics championships: Analysis of Helsinki 2012 championships

Injury and illness risks during outdoor European athletics championships: Analysis of Helsinki 2012 championships

SPORT-RELATED INJURIES DURING YOUTH AND NATIONAL COMBINED EVENTS CHAMPIONSHIPS

BackgroundIn International Association of Athletics Federation and European Athletics competitions, higher injury incidences were reported for athletes participating in combined events.ObjectiveTo record and analyze the incidence and characteristics of injuries...

Encoding destination messages in media coverage of an international event: A case study of the European athletics indoor championships

Abstract The destination management strategy of enhancing destination brands or market position via international sport events is one of the main reasons for destinations to engage in event bidding. The strategy raises important questions regarding the process of encoding a destination's brand values into the media reports from an international sporting event and what the perceived challenges of that strategy are. The process has been explored from a destination perspective in a case study during the recently completed 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships in Gothenburg, Sweden using data from multiple sources before, during and after the event. Public relations strategy and the persuasive communication model have been employed to structure the description. The study shows that the destination marketing organization (DMO) is involved in two different processes in order to influence the message transmitted from the event. The TV broadcast process is negotiated before the event and the news coverage process is occurring during the event. The latter relates to the DMO's attempts to persuade gatekeepers of international media to include the destination message in their reports by the use of both direct and indirect cues and activities. One tenth of the reports from the event are about the destination rather than the sport. Key differences between the two processes are presented, as well as a synthesis model of information-based communication and persuasive communication in the setting of an international sport event. Challenges to the strategy were e.g. media professional's formal assignment and the match between event and destination values in order for the DMO to communicate a newsworthy message.

Incidences et caractéristiques des blessures lors des Championnats internationaux d’athlétisme 2011 et 2012

IntroductionDetermining the incidence and characteristics of injuries is an essential first step in the athletics injury prevention. The aim of this study was to establish an inventory of the incidence and characteristics of injuries occurred during International Championships Athletics. MethodsDuring the last three International Athletics Championships (2011 IAAF World Championships, 2012 European Athletics Championships, and 2012 Olympic Games), all newly incurred injuries were collected by national teams and local organizing committee physicians among the 5272 registered athletes. ResultsEighty-six percent of athletes were covered by national medical teams with a response rate of 93%. Five hundred and seventy-two injuries were reported, corresponding to an incidence of 108.5 injuries per 1000 registered athletes, including 270 (47%) time-loss injuries. Seventy-nine percent of injuries affected the lower limb. Overuse (43%) was the main cause. The highest incidence of injuries and time-loss injuries were found in combined events and marathon. ConclusionDuring an International Athletics Championship, 109 injuries per 1000 registered athletes have been reported, and almost half were time-loss injuries. These injuries involved preferentially thigh, leg or knee (with variations according to disciplines), affected more likely muscular and ligamentous structures, and overuse was the main cause. The combined events and marathon athletes have a higher risk of injury. Specific prevention measures should be adapted and developed, focused on muscle damage (especially hamstrings) and overuse injuries. These could include such things as muscle strengthening or balance exercises, flexibility, balance and proprioception, and taking into account suitable periods of fatigue and minor injuries, by adapted rest periods.

Patellar tendinopathy in master track and field athletes: influence of impact profile, weight, height, age and gender

Patellar tendinopathy causes significant morbidity in professional and recreational athletes. Despite the relevance of the problem, its causative factors remain poorly understood. The purpose of this cross-sectional study is to evaluate the influence of age, gender, weight, height and impact profile on developing patellar tendinopathy in master track and field athletes. During the European Veterans Athletics Championships in Poznań in July 2006, 174 athletes (103 men and 71 women; mean age: 53.8 (SD 11.4) years, range 35-82years) were evaluated with the VISA-P questionnaire. A fully trained orthopaedic surgeon made a diagnosis of patellar tendinopathy according to clinical criteria. There was no effect of gender upon the presence of patellar tendinopathy (n.s.). No significant track and field specialty effect upon the frequency of patellar tendinopathy was found on the VISA-P questionnaire scores. There was no effect of track and field specialty on the VISA-P score. No evidence of a statistically significant association was found between age and VISA-P score (n.s.). There was no statistically significant difference in either prevalence of patellar tendinopathy or VISA-P score between high-impact and low-impact athletes (n.s.). In master track and field athletes, impact profile, weight, height, age and gender did not exert any influence on developing patellar tendinopathy.

Consequences of the European Team Championships’ new rules on Pole Vault

Over the 2009 European Team Championship, the European Athletics Association proceeded to a modification of Pole Vault rules according to which, each competitor was entitled to a maximum of 4 aggregate fouls throughout the competition. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of new rules implementation on men’s and women’s Pole Vault competition. The 2008 and 2009 European Team Championships results for the Super and First Leagues (n = 48; 24 males & 24 females) were compared. The dependent variables were: Athlete’s Final Height (AFH), Number of Efforts (NE), Successful Efforts (SE), Failed Efforts (FE) and Efforts Forgoed (EF). Men’s AFH remained unchanged (0.04%). NE reduced by 1.92% while the percentile SE/FE distribution changed favourably towards the SE (40.65%/59.35% for 2008 vs 43.42%/56.58% for 2009). Women’s AFH remained unchanged (+ 0.24%). NE decreased significantly by 16.28%, while the percentile SE/FE distribution changed favourably towards the SE (44.70%/55.30% for 2008 vs 47.21%/52.79% for 2009). Overall, the restriction in Pole Vault efforts seems to have had a slightly positive effect on men’s and women’s performance.

Exploring Destination Image, Experience and Revisit Intention: A Comparison of Sport and Non-Sport Tourist Perceptions

Despite calls for an integrative approach to examine sport event tourism, few attempts have combined sport event and tourism destination studies. This paper addresses this gap by examining travel purpose, destination image and revisit intention. Ratings of importance and performance for the 16 attributes of a destination hosting the European Athletics Championship are used to compare between sport tourist (N = 153) and non-sport tourist (N = 168) with revisit intention. Results support the use of a generic list of 16 destination attributes to examine travel purpose and reveal that sport and non-sport tourists possess both similar and dissimilar perspectives. Major differences were found among three attributes: accommodation facilities, historic/cultural attractions and sport facilities & activities. Results highlight the influential role that destination evaluation has on revisit intention. Managerial implications are discussed, providing suggestions to sport and tourism marketers.

Pulmonary O2 Uptake Kinetics In Sprint And Endurance Trained Master Athletes

Pulmonary O2 uptake (VO2) kinetics following the onset of exercise are slowed with advancing age beyond ∼ 40 years. Short-term exercise training interventions result in a speeding of VO kinetics in older individuals such that the time constant for the Phase 11VO response (τ) can approach that observed in young sedentary subjects. However, it is not known whether the speed of the VO2 kinetic response in 'elite' older athletes is similar to that observed in younger athletes. PURPOSE To examine the VO2 kinetic response to moderate intensity cycle exercise in endurance-trained and sprint-trained master athletes. METHODS 86 master athletes (aged 35–85yrs) who were competing at either the British or European veteran athletics championships acted as subjects, and were classified as either endurance (END: 800m-Marathon; n=42), or sprint (SPR: 100m-400m; n=44) specialists. Subjects completed two 6 min 'step' transitions to a work rate predicted to be of moderate intensity (i.e. below the lactate threshold, LT) on a cycle ergometer. Pulmonary gas exchange was measured breath-by-breath and fingertip blood samples were analysed for blood [lactate] before and after exercise. RESULTS Blood [lactate] data confirmed that the selected work rates were <LT. Analysis of variance revealed that SPR athletes had slower VO2 kinetics (i.e. greater ?) compared to END athletes (P <0.05): 35–44yrs (END: 24.9 ± 1.8 vs. SPR: 30.5 ± 5.0 s), 45–54yrs(END: 28.7 ±2.8 vs. SPR: 35.6 ±9.1 s), 55–64yrs (END: 23.7 ±4.7 vs. SPR: 34.0 ± 8.5 s), 65–74yrs (END: 28.0 ± 9.5 vs. SPR: 40.1 ± 20.6 s) and 75–85yrs (END: 31.3 ± 10.4 vs. SPR: 48.6 ± 18.3 s). However, there was no significant slowing of VO2 kinetics with age. CONCLUSION Elite master END athletes have similar × values to their younger counterparts (∼ 25 s) suggesting that chronic END training and/or genetic factors limit the slowing of VO2 kinetics with age in this population. The slower VO kinetics in SPR compared to END master athletes is consistent both with differences in physiology (e.g. muscle fiber type, oxidative/glycolytic capacity) and training between these specialist athletes.

Pulmonary O2 Uptake Kinetics In Sprint And Endurance Trained Master Athletes

Pulmonary O2 uptake (VO2) kinetics following the onset of exercise are slowed with advancing age beyond ∼ 40 years. Short-term exercise training interventions result in a speeding of VO kinetics in older individuals such that the time constant for the Phase 11VO response (τ) can approach that observed in young sedentary subjects. However, it is not known whether the speed of the VO2 kinetic response in 'elite' older athletes is similar to that observed in younger athletes. PURPOSE To examine the VO2 kinetic response to moderate intensity cycle exercise in endurance-trained and sprint-trained master athletes. METHODS 86 master athletes (aged 35–85yrs) who were competing at either the British or European veteran athletics championships acted as subjects, and were classified as either endurance (END: 800m-Marathon; n=42), or sprint (SPR: 100m-400m; n=44) specialists. Subjects completed two 6 min 'step' transitions to a work rate predicted to be of moderate intensity (i.e. below the lactate threshold, LT) on a cycle ergometer. Pulmonary gas exchange was measured breath-by-breath and fingertip blood samples were analysed for blood [lactate] before and after exercise. RESULTS Blood [lactate] data confirmed that the selected work rates were <LT. Analysis of variance revealed that SPR athletes had slower VO2 kinetics (i.e. greater ?) compared to END athletes (P <0.05): 35–44yrs (END: 24.9 ± 1.8 vs. SPR: 30.5 ± 5.0 s), 45–54yrs(END: 28.7 ±2.8 vs. SPR: 35.6 ±9.1 s), 55–64yrs (END: 23.7 ±4.7 vs. SPR: 34.0 ± 8.5 s), 65–74yrs (END: 28.0 ± 9.5 vs. SPR: 40.1 ± 20.6 s) and 75–85yrs (END: 31.3 ± 10.4 vs. SPR: 48.6 ± 18.3 s). However, there was no significant slowing of VO2 kinetics with age. CONCLUSION Elite master END athletes have similar × values to their younger counterparts (∼ 25 s) suggesting that chronic END training and/or genetic factors limit the slowing of VO2 kinetics with age in this population. The slower VO kinetics in SPR compared to END master athletes is consistent both with differences in physiology (e.g. muscle fiber type, oxidative/glycolytic capacity) and training between these specialist athletes.