European Athletics Research Articles

Educating and promoting athletes’ health protection through infographics on injury and illness prevention during an international competition: a prospective study during the 2024 European Athletics Championships

ObjectiveTo investigate the feasibility, perceived relevance and usefulness of providing injury and illness prevention information through infographics to athletes and medical teams before and during an international athletics championship, and...

Modelling the optimization of world-class 400 m and 1,500 m running performances using high-resolution data.

The 400 m and 1,500 m are track events that rely on different but important contributions from both the aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The purpose of this study is to model men's and women's 400 m and 1,500 m championship performances to gain a deeper understanding of the key mechanical and physiological factors affecting running speed and bend running using high-resolution data from live competition (10 Hz). To investigate World-class athletes' instantaneous speeds, propulsive forces and aerobic and anaerobic energy, we model and simulate the performances of the men's and women's European Athletics 400 m champions, Matthew Hudson-Smith and Femke Bol, as well as the men's European Athletics 1,500 m champion, Jakob Ingebrigtsen, and the women's European Athletics U23 1,500 m champion, Gaia Sabbatini. The simulations show that a fast start is essential in both the 400 m and 1,500 m because of the need for fast oxygen kinetics, with peak running speeds occurring within the first ∼50 m in both events. Subsequently, 400 m athletes slow continually from this maximum speed to the finish, and a total anaerobic contribution of ∼77% is found for both male and female champions. The key to faster 400 m racing is to reduce the decrease in velocity: this comes from both a high VO2 and a high anaerobic contribution. Ingebrigtsen's winning tactic in the European 1,500 m final is to adopt a very fast cruising pace from 300 m onwards that is possible because he is able to maintain a high VO2 value until the end of the race and has a large anaerobic contribution. He has fast VO2 kinetics that does not require as fast a start as his opponents, but then he speeds up in the last two laps, without a fast sprint finish. The comparison between Sabbatini's slower and quicker races (∼8 s difference) shows that it is the improvement of aerobic metabolism that has the greatest effect on 1,500 m performance. Coaches should note in particular that the all-out pacing nature of the 400 m requires the prioritization of anaerobic energy system development, and those who coach the 1,500 m should note the differing energy contributions between even-paced races and championship racing.

Perceptions and beliefs on sports injury prediction as an injury risk reduction strategy: An online survey on elite athletics (track and field) athletes, coaches, and health professionals

ObjectivesTo explore perceptions and beliefs of elite athletics (track and field) athletes, coaches, and health professionals, towards the use of injury prediction as an injury risk reduction strategy. DesignCross-sectional study. MethodDuring the 2022 European Athletics Championships in Munich, registered athletes, coaches, and health professionals were asked to complete an online questionnaire on their perceptions and beliefs of injury prediction use as an injury risk reduction strategy. The perceived level of interest, intent to use, help, potential stress (psychological impact) and dissemination were assessed by a score from 0 to 100. ResultsWe collected 54 responses from 17 countries. Elite athletics stakeholders expressed a perceived level of interest, intent to use, and help of injury prediction of (mean ± SD) 85 ± 16, 84 ± 16, and 85 ± 15, respectively. The perceived level of potential stress was 41 ± 33 (range from 0 to 100), with an important inter-individual variability in each elite athletics stakeholder's category. ConclusionsThis was the first study investigating the perceptions and beliefs of elite athletics stakeholders regarding the use of injury prediction as an injury risk reduction strategy. Regardless of the stakeholders, there was a high perceived level of interest, intent to use and help reported in this potential strategy.

Reasons for performance in athletic hammer that: the results of the studies, the structural development of the training of the hammer, the perspectives of the outer development

Ukraine has always been famous for outstanding hammer throwing coaches who trained Olympic champions, world record holders, winners of the World and European Athletics Forums, and scientists whose scientific research gave the coaching staff the opportunity to properly study and improve not only technical skills and methods of arranging training process, but also the development all types of athletes’ training.
 The hammer throw in athletics is a complex system of purposeful movements. It combines a number of simple and complex movements. Currently, most elite-class athletes throw the hammer in four turns.
 One of the main areas of the training process in hammer throw and improving technique elements is to find the optimal amount of acceleration of the movements rhythm, the number of turns, the nature of the first turn as well as the others, which are necessary to determine the most rational technique option for each athlete, which requires quite a long time for its improvement.
 The predominant focus on improving athletes’ technical actions and physical fitness should include exercises similar to the
 main elements of technical actions in hammer throwing for integral improvement of necessary qualities and elements of technique.
 The decrease of sports results in this area of athletics, in our opinion, presupposes failure of coaches to follow the sequence of necessary physical abilities and technical skills development at certain stages of long-term training (initial training, preliminary basic training, specialized basic training, preparation for high achievements), where they should achieve individual maximums of their development and meet previously developed criteria and their values.
 One of the reasons for this problem is refusal from the well-established training system of "throwing schools" during the last decades. During the Olympic Games in Tokyo, the hammer thrower from Ukraine M. Kokhan took fourth place with a rather high result of
 80.39 m, which indicates the revival of "throwing schools" in various regions of the country. The results of hammer throwing performances of Ukrainian athletes from different regions of Ukraine makes us believe that a new era in the revival of "throwing schools" is on its launch.
 A new stage of results manifestation and the appearance of a new generation of coaches in hammer throwing is approaching, which indicates the revival of "throwing schools" in different regions of Ukraine.
 The revival of women's high performance in hammer throwing can be considered by focusing attention in the training system on both female body features and the related methodologies of forming new areas of development and improving its main systems.

Athletes’ Opinions on Food Provision at European Athletics Championships: Implications for the Future

In competitive events, athletes' performances can be affected by their food choices. In addition, nutrition labels are essential to sustain informed decisions and to allow athletes to comply with their dietary planning. Knowing what influences athletes' food choices will help to improve the food provision in future championships. Therefore, we aimed to study the factors influencing athletes' choices, their knowledge on nutrition labels, and their opinion on the food service at two European Athletics Championships. Questionnaires were completed by 339 athletes (57% males, 19.6 ± 1.3 years) competing at the 2019 European Athletics Under 20 and Under 23 Championships. Factors that may impact performance (time of the day and nutrient composition) were rated as important and very important by a higher percentage of athletes (78% and 74%, respectively) compared to the presence of teammates (32%) and the coach (23%). Among the athletes who knew what nutrition labels are (49%), 72% would like to have additional nutritional information in future championships. Furthermore, our study revealed that for most athletes (72%), food temperature is important or very important for food choices. Overall, food provision had positive results, but further research is needed to help organizers better tailor food provision to athletes' needs.

Games and genes: human diversity meets cytogenetics-Mexico 1968.

The 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico included innovative practices and technological knowledge of human biology. The first time that cytogenetic techniques had been applied to athletes was in the 1966 European Athletics Championship in Budapest and used on Olympic athletes for the first time in Mexico in 1968. The Genetics and Human Biology Program (Programa de Genética y Biología Humanas, PGBH) was created for this purpose in 1966 in close collaboration with the Local Organizing Committee (Comité Organizador, CO), by Mexican geneticists Alfonso León de Garay and Rodolfo Félix Estrada who led the project. The main objective was to study the genetic and anthropological components which determine an Olympic athlete's abilities. This investigation studied 1,265 game participants and included family studies, cytological analyses, research on single genes, and the study of sex determination. In terms of influence beyond Mexico, this Program was significant as a site of transnational collaboration. It mobilized cognitive and financial resources, scientific practices, and material culture to set up a clinical laboratory in the Olympic Village. The Program also hosted three international seminars in Mexico City, two before the games, to calibrate clinical trials and anthropological tests. One in 1969 to analyze the results and proceed to their publication in 1974. This manuscript will focus on the PGBH to show how its work fits in the larger tapestry of post-1945 human biological studies. Also, to explore how the Olympic athlete populations studied can be considered laboratories of knowledge production or sites of cognition conceived as specific entities for scientific inquiry, standardization of medical practices, and the production or application of medicines. Finally, through the narrative of the different trajectories and collaborations of the leaders of the PGBH, this manuscript will show how contact between their scientific practices brought cytogenetics and sports together.

Motives for competitive sports participation in masters track and field athletes: Impact of sociodemographic factors and competitive background.

Masters athletes due to their lifelong engagement in sport represent a unique group to study motivation for regular physical activity, but there is less scientific data on the sport motives in masters athletes. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the association of age, sex, education, nationality, competitive background and training amount with sport motives of masters track and field athletes. 811 (254 women) athletes aged 35-89 years participated in European Veterans Athletics Championships in the year of 2000. Sport motives were assessed with a questionnaire and categorized into1) well-being, 2) competitive and performance 3) health and fitness motives. Men considered health and fitness motives more important than women (p = 0.022). Over 65-year-old athletes considered health and fitness motives more important than the youngest, 35-49-year age group (p<0.001). Education was not associated with sport motives, while motives varied significantly among different nationalities. Athletes from Nordic Countries considered well-being motives more important than Southern Europeans (p<0.001) or Western Europeans (p<0.05). Athletes from Nordic Countries (p = 0.003), Eastern Europe (p<0.001) and Central Europe (p<0.001) found health and fitness motives more meaningful than athletes from the British Isles. Furthermore, athletes with competitive background before the age of 35 and training amount more than 7.5 h a week found competitive and performance motives more important than athletes without a competitive history (p = 0.002). These results suggest that age, sex, nationality and former athleticism are associated with sports motives among international level masters track and field athletes. It seems that while for masters athletes with competitive background performance motives dominate, for older adults, particularly for males, health and fitness motives are more important. In addition, when designing the exercise interventions for older adults, different sport motives across countries should be considered.

Hamstring Muscle Injuries and Hamstring Specific Training in Elite Athletics (Track and Field) Athletes.

Objective: We aimed to describe hamstring muscle injury (HMI) history and hamstring specific training (HST) in elite athletes. A secondary aim was to analyse the potential factors associated with in-championships HMI. Methods: We conducted a prospective cohort study to collect data before and during the 2018 European Athletics Championships. Injury and illness complaints during the month before the championship, HMI history during the entire career and the 2017–18 season, HST (strengthening, stretching, core stability, sprinting), and in-championship HMI were recorded. We calculated proportions of athletes with HMI history, we compared HST according to sex and disciplines with Chi2 tests or ANOVA, and analysed factors associated with in-championship HMI using simple model logistic regression. Results: Among the 357 included athletes, 48% reported at least one HMI during their career and 24% during the 2017–18 season. Of this latter group, 30.6% reported reduced or no participation in athletics’ training or competition at the start of the championship due to the hamstring injury. For HST, higher volumes of hamstring stretching and sprinting were reported for disciplines requiring higher running velocities (i.e., sprints, hurdles, jumps, combined events and middle distances). Five in-championship HMIs were recorded. The simple model analysis showed a lower risk of sustaining an in-championships HMI for athletes who performed more core (lumbo-pelvic) stability training (OR = 0.49 (95% CI: 0.25 to 0.89), p = 0.021). Conclusions: Our present study reports that HMI is a characteristic of the athletics athletes’ career, especially in disciplines involving sprinting. In these disciplines, athletes were performing higher volumes of hamstring stretching and sprinting than in other disciplines. Further studies should be conducted to better understand if and how HST are protective approaches for HMI in order to improve HMI risk reduction strategies.

High Risk Of Heat-related Illnesses For Endurance Athletes During Athletics Championships In Hot Climate

PURPOSE: To analyze the relationship between climatic conditions and the occurrence of heat-related illnesses during international athletics championships. METHODS: In this population-based study, all heat-related illnesses were selected from prospectively collected illness data from seven international outdoor World and European athletics championships between 2009 and 2018. The Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) of each championship day was calculated as a model of thermoregulation for climatic conditions. The incidence rates of heat-related illnesses were analyzed in relation to the daily maximum UTCI temperature by fitting linear models. In addition, the relative risk (RR) was calculated for athletes from endurance and explosive disciplines, and for women and men. RESULTS: Overall, 132 heat-related illnesses occurred during the 50 championship days with UTCI temperatures between 15° and 37°Celsius (C). The average incidence rate of heat-related illness was 11.7 (95%CI 9.7 to 13.7) per 1000 registered athletes. The expected daily incidence rate of heat-related illness increased significantly with UTCI temperature (0.14 more illnesses per 1000 registered athletes per °C; 95%CI 0.10 to 0.18), doubling from 25 to 35 °C UTCI. No severe heat illness was observed below a UTCI temperature of 28 °C. Athletes in endurance disciplines had higher incidence rates than in explosive disciplines (RR = 21.7, 95% CI 12.0 to 39.2), while female and male athletes did not differ. CONCLUSION: More heat-related illness occurred on championship days with higher UTCI temperatures. There was a 20-fold increased risk in endurance disciplines compared with explosive disciplines. Strategies to prevent heat-related illness should focus on endurance disciplines in athletics competitions that occur in warm and humid climates with UTCI above 28 °C.

All-Time Best Norwegian Track and Field Athletes: to What Extent Did They Achieve Outstanding Results at the Ages of 15 and 18 Years?

The aim of the study was to determine how many Norwegian athletes who, during all the times they had achieved the European Athletics Championship 2020—Entry Standards (EAC20ES), were also ranked among the 20 all-time-best athletes at the ages of 15 and 18 years. The number of athletes who achieved the EAC20ES during their career, and the percentage of those who were among top 20 in the age groups 15 and 18 years, were determined from the Norwegian all-time-best results lists. A total of 202 athletes achieved the EAC20ES in the studied time period. Of these, 14.4% and 42.1% were ranked among the top 20 all-time best in one or more events at the ages of 15 and 18 years, respectively. However, among those who had won an international gold medal, these percentages were much higher. Eight out of 12 champions (66.7%) were ranked among the top 20 all-time best in one or more event at 15 years of age, and 11 of 12 champions (91.6%) were ranked among the top 20 all-time best at 18 years of age. Athletes that went on to win international championships typically performed better as adolescents compared to other athletes who also reach an international level as seniors. However, due to the low number of international champions, the date should be interpreted with caution.

Approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the team's performance in international athletics competitions (on the example of endurance)

The aim: theoretical substantiation and development of approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the results of the sports team's performance in international athletics competitions (on the example of endurance).&#x0D; Material and methods: theoretical analysis and generalization of scientific and methodological literature and information of the Internet, data of information databases of athletics (Tilastopaja), (All-Athletics), printed and electronic sources of the Association of Track &amp; Field Statisticians- ATFS ), the official website of the European Athletics Association (EAA), the Federation of Athletics of Ukraine, systematization, content analysis. An analysis of the results of competitive activities of athletes (n = 297) of the best thirteen European teams that participated in the XXIV European Athletics Championships (Berlin, 2018) in endurance and have gold awards. The criteria that allow to expand the approaches to assessing the effectiveness of the performance of the full team were considered.&#x0D; Results. The performance of thirteen best teams in athletics in endurance at the XXIV European Athletics Championships (Berlin, 2018) was analyzed. The obtained data allowed us to conclude that in order to create an objective assessment of the team's performance in athletics, it is not enough to take into account only the number of medals won and the places occupied by the team's athletes in the top eight. When determining the effectiveness of team performance in endurance classes, according to the existing evaluation system, medals were awarded to 2% to 33% of athletes from the total team, and places in the top eight were occupied by 18 to 75% of athletes.&#x0D; Conclusions. When evaluating the effectiveness of a sports team, you need to take into account a number of criteria that will create a diverse assessment of the performance of the sports team, which includes evaluation as a criterion - the performance of athletes at the level of personal achievement.

Training Load, Neuromuscular Readiness, and Perceptual Fatigue Profile in Youth Elite Long-Jump Athletes.

To describe and identify individual trends and changes in training load, neuromuscular readiness, and perceptual fatigue measures in 2 youth elite long jumpers, finalists at the European Athletics U18 (Under 18) Championships (athlete A, female, age 16.5y, long-jump record 6.25m; athlete B, male, age 16.0y, long-jump record 7.28m). Data were collected from both training sessions and athletics competitions during a 16-week period, divided into a preparation (weeks 1-8) and a competitive phase (weeks 9-16). Training load was computed through training diaries (training time, sprint, jumping, and weights volume). The countermovement jump and the 10-to-5 repeated-jump test were executed on a weekly basis to assess neuromuscular readiness, and perceptual fatigue measures were collected through a wellness questionnaire. Statistical analysis was conducted using a magnitude-based decisions approach. The results highlighted a decrease in training load during the competitive period with moderate to large differences for training time, sprint, and jump volume. Moreover, data showed an upward trend and very likely higher scores in vertical-jump performance across the competitive phase together with a very likely lower perceptual fatigue. This scenario seemed to be favorable to achieve competition performance very close to the personal record during the competitive season. This study provided an example of application of a comprehensive monitoring system with young athletes involved in track-and-field jumping events.

European Athletics Championship: Lessons from a Live, HDR, HFR, UHD, and Next-Generation Audio Sports Event

The European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and several of its member organizations undertook an ambitious trial over the summer period—a live, ultrahigh-definition, high dynamic range, high frame rate, wide color gamut, and next-generation audio trial at the European Athletics Championships in Berlin, Germany. The trial included four 2160p/100 cameras with live control of shading/racking, live vision mixing, live recording, live mixing of audio objects, audiovisual synchronization with audio objects, and live encoding. This paper looks at the lessons learned during the trial—what went well, what needed extra work, and what is needed to overcome current technical hurdles.

Interrater reliability of the injury reporting of the injury surveillance system used in international athletics championships

ObjectivesThe quality of epidemiological injury data depends on the reliability of reporting to an injury surveillance system. Ascertaining whether all physicians/physiotherapists report the same information for the same injury case is of major interest to determine data validity. The aim of this study was therefore to analyse the data collection reliability through the analysis of the interrater reliability. DesignCross-sectional survey. MethodsDuring the 2016 European Athletics Advanced Athletics Medicine Course in Amsterdam, all national medical teams were asked to complete seven virtual case reports on a standardised injury report form using the same definitions and classifications of injuries as the international athletics championships injury surveillance protocol. The completeness of data and the Fleiss’ kappa coefficients for the inter-rater reliability were calculated for: sex, age, event, circumstance, location, type, assumed cause and estimated time-loss. ResultsForty-one team physicians and physiotherapists of national medical teams participated in the study (response rate 89.1%). Data completeness was 96.9%. The Fleiss’ kappa coefficients were: almost perfect for sex (k=1), injury location (k=0.991), event (k=0.953), circumstance (k=0.942), and age (k=0.870), moderate for type (k=0.507), fair for assumed cause (k=0.394), and poor for estimated time-loss (k=0.155). ConclusionsThe injury surveillance system used during international athletics championships provided reliable data for “sex”, “location”, “event”, “circumstance”, and “age”. More caution should be taken for “assumed cause” and “type”, and even more for “estimated time-loss”. This injury surveillance system displays satisfactory data quality (reliable data and high data completeness), and thus, can be recommended as tool to collect epidemiology information on injuries during international athletics championships.

ВЛИЯНИЕ ПСИХОФИЗИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ПОКАЗАТЕЛЕЙ НА РЕЗУЛЬТАТ БЕГА НА 200 М У СПРИНТЕРОВ ВЫСОКОЙ КВАЛИФИКАЦИИ С НАРУШЕНИЕМ ЗРЕНИЯ НА ПРИМЕРЕ ЭЛИТНОЙ СПОРТСМЕНКИ

The aim of the work is to reveal the influence of psycho-physiological factors on the individual performance in a track and field sprint among highly qualified athletes with visual impairment on the example of an elite athlete. Material and methods. highly qualified athlete participated in the study, specializing in short-distance running and long jump among athletes with visual impairments in 2010 European Athletics Champion; winner of the World Paralympic Championships and the Paralympic Games for Athletes with Visual Impairment (Category T12) 2016. Psychophysiological testing athlete held close to the screen. The course of the study. The individual characteristics of the psychophysiological state and the results in the 200 m race for five months were analyzed. The results in the 200 m race were recorded at the official and unofficial competitions. A total of 36 results were analyzed. Results. Multiple linear regression models were compiled between results in a 200 m race for an elite athlete with visual impairment and psycho-physiological indicators. The selected model of multiple regression is represented by the following variables: simple visual motor response time (ms), total test time with feedback at 120 signals (s), time to reach the minimum signal exposure in a test with feedback at 30 signals (s) , the time to reach the minimum signal exposure in the test with feedback at 120 signals (s). Conclusions . The compensatory mechanisms of visual function insufficiency to maintain high speed in 200 m run as psycho-physiological functions were revealed: indicators characteristic of sprinters (simple reaction speed and mobility of the nervous system) and specific indicators (efficiency, strength of the nervous system).

Comparison of shot-put release parameters and consistency in performance between elite throwers with and without intellectual impairment

Background: Shot-put is one of the events in which athletes with intellectual impairment compete at the Paralympic Games, since their re-inclusion in 2012. The purpose of this study was to compare the competition performance and investigate differences in release parameters and consistency of performance between high level shot-put throwers with and without intellectual impairment. Methods: Data collection took place at the 2014 European Championships athletics for athletes with intellectual impairment ( n = 20; 11 men, 9 women, MIQ = 60.2 ± 7.3, Mage = 28.1 ± 6.7 years), and the 2015 national championships for athletes without intellectual impairment ( n = 26, 12 men, 14 women, Mage = 24.9 ± 5.6 years). A video camera operating at 100 Hz was utilized to capture the throws and 2D images were analyzed with motion analysis software to calculate release parameters and check consistency of the throw. Results: Independent t tests revealed that the average (11.87 m) and best (14.81 m) performance of male world-class intellectual impairment-throwers was significantly lower compared to the average (14.62 m) and best (17.78 m) performance of male national level throwers without intellectual impairment ( F = 5.3, p &lt; .05), primarily due to the significantly lower release velocity ( r = .79, p &lt; .01). The inter-individual variance in throw-to-throw distance was significantly larger in intellectual impairment-throwers; however, opposite to what was expected, the angle of release consistency was not significantly different between both samples. Intellectual impairment-throwers performed with superior release velocity consistency than non-intellectual impairment-throwers. Conclusions: These findings support the assumption that impaired cognitive function may constrain the ability to optimally release the shot-put.

An Example of the Informative Potential of Polar Coordinate Analysis: Sprint Tactics in Elite 1,500-m Track Events

ABSTRACTPolar coordinate analysis is a powerful data reduction technique based on the Zsum statistic, which is calculated from adjusted residuals obtained by lag sequential analysis. Its use has been greatly simplified since the addition of a module in the free software program HOISAN for performing the necessary computations and producing easy-to-interpret results in the form of polar coordinate maps. In this study, we provide a simple and practical example of how this technique can be used to analyze tactical behaviors in sport and physical exercise. We studied 158 performances by 82 male runners in thirteen 1,500-m finals held at the Olympic Games, the World Championships in Athletics, and the European Athletics Championships between 2000 and 2012 to investigate associations between the initiation of sprints by race winners and other runners (focal behaviors) and the lap and zone of the track in which the sprints were initiated (conditional behaviors). The significant prospective/retrospective activating/inhibitory relationships shown in the polar coordinate maps confirm the decision to start a sprint is a tactical one and are consistent with a winning strategy consisting of avoiding giving rivals the benefit of the slipstream while conserving sufficient energy for a final winning burst. Polar coordinate analysis is a powerful technique for studying tactical behaviors in the field of sport.

Electronic data capture on athletes' pre-participation health and in-competition injury and illness at major sports championships: An extended usability study in Athletics.

This study set out to identify factors critical for the usability of electronic data collection in association with championships in individual sports. A qualitative analysis of electronic data collection system usability for collection of data on pre-participation health from athletes and in-competition injury and illness from team physicians was performed during the 2013 European Athletics Indoor Championships. A total of 15 athletes and team physicians participated. Athletes were found to experience few problems interacting with the electronic data collection system, but reported concerns about having to reflect on injury and illness before competitions and the medical terminology used. Team physicians encountered problems when first navigating through the module for clinical reporting, but they were not subjected to motivational problems. We conclude that athletes' motivation to self-report health data and the design of the human-computer interface for team physicians are key issues for the usability of electronic data collection systems in association with championships in individual sports.

Investigation of personality characteristics of hearing impaired athletes participating in 2nd European youth hearing impaired athletics championships

The aim of this research is to assess the personality characteristics of national hearing impaired athletes and to evaluate the relationship between gender and branches with the personality characteristics. For this purpose, this research has been designed on screening model. The research was performed with Athletes Participating in 2nd European Youth Hearing Impaired Athletics Championships, held on 21-23 August 2014 inTrabzon. The research group consisted of 67 athletes including 26 fromTurkey, 2 fromBelgium, 3 fromEstonia, 8 fromGermany, 4 fromLithuania, 1 from theNetherlands, 12 fromPoland, 9 fromRussiaand 2 fromSpain. 34.3% (n = 23) of athletes were female, 65.7% (n = 44) consisted of male athletics. PERI (Personality Inventory) personality scale consisting of 25 items was used for measuring personality traits of national hearing impaired athletes in the research. PERI; is composed of 5 subgroups including openness to experience, sense of responsibility, extraversion, compatibleness and emotional stability. The scale was applied with face to face technical to athletes by two experts who know the language of the hearing impaired. In the analysis of the research data, frequency and percentage distribution, t-test, Kruskal-Wallis test and Mann-Whitney U tests were performed. In the result of the research; There were no significant differences between sport branches and gender and personality characteristics of the athletes. (p>0.05). National hearing impaired athletes had in ''not effective or low'' level the personality trait of emotional stability and they defined as the individuals not feeling optimistic enough, easy-tempered and having a high level of anxiety. But they had in ''effective or high'' level the personality traits of sense of responsibility and they defined as disciplined individuals who do not give up in the face of difficulties themselves, pay attention to details, are planned in everything they do.

Prévention des blessures en athlétisme : démarche scientifique par application du modèle de van Mechelen en quatre étapes

The prevention of athletic injuries is a major challenge for international and national sports federations such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), the European Athletics (EAA) and the Federation of French Athletics (FFA). Following the four-step scientific sequence of van Mechelen et al., we described the state of knowledge on athletic injury prevention, particularly on the basis of work carried out and/or promoted by the IAAF, the EAA and the FFA. The vast majority of studies, and thus knowledge, relates to the epidemiology of injuries (step 1), although more studies should be conducted in this area in order to have a more comprehensive knowledge. It shows that athletes mainly suffered from thigh muscle injuries and especially hamstring, Achilles tendinopathies, knee overuse injuries, ankle sprains and low back pain; the risk varied with sex and discipline. Knowledge about the mechanisms and risk factors of athletic injuries is still limited, although a first episode of injury, male gender, increasing age, certain disciplines of athletics, appeared to be injury factors risk. Efforts for understanding the mechanisms and risk factors therefore must be continued and focused primarily on the most frequent and/or severe injury. Various prevention measures and/or strategies have been devised and proposed specific to certain injuries or more general on all injuries, physical conditioning, technical gesture, lifestyle, psychological care, equipment, coordinated care. However, to date and to our knowledge, none of these prevention measures and/or strategies have been scientifically validated for its effectiveness for athletics. This clearly represents a relevant direction to follow and develop in the process of prevention of athletic injuries.