Eurasian Economic Union Research Articles

EXHAUSTION OF TRADEMARK RIGHTS IN THE EAEU: THE NEED TO TRANSITION TO AN INTERNATIONAL PRINCIPLE

This study analyzes the trademark exhaustion regime within the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the need to transition to an international principle aimed at achieving a balance between the protection of intellectual property rights and market needs. Currently, the EAEU operates under a regional exhaustion regime that ensures the free movement of goods between member states but restricts imports from third countries without the consent of the rights holder. Although such a regime promotes domestic competition, it creates difficulties in ensuring the availability of goods to consumers, especially in the context of sanctions pressure on key EAEU members such as Russia and Belarus. Transitioning to an international exhaustion principle, under which goods introduced to the market in any country can move freely within EAEU countries, could reduce prices, improve access to goods – including pharmaceuticals – and enhance the competitiveness of regional markets. The study employs normative and comparative legal methods, allowing for an analysis of the practices of EAEU member states and international experience, with special emphasis on the practices of the European Union. Additionally, this study relies on the analysis of secondary sources extracted from primary, secondary, and tertiary legal materials. The findings highlight that, to ensure product quality and safety within the EAEU, additional regulatory mechanisms based on successful examples from the European Union need to be developed to achieve a balance between the protection of intellectual property rights and the economic flexibility of the member states.

The Impact of Regional Economic Integration on Socio-Demographic Processes in Uzbekistan

The article examines the impact of regional economic integration processes in the post-Soviet landscape on socio-demographic changes in the Republic of Uzbekistan. Attention is focused on labor migration as one of the key problems. After the collapse of the USSR, Uzbekistan became the main donor of labor migrants in the region, which influenced the socio-demographic situation in the republic. Integration within the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) opens new economic horizons, contributing to the development of Central Asian countries, but also creates challenges for migration policy and social infrastructure. The article examines both positive and negative aspects of integration in the context of the labor market, quality of life and demographic indicators in the Republic of Uzbekistan and neighboring states. Simplification of the visa regime and opening of borders contribute to an increase in labor migration, which, on the one hand, creates new economic opportunities for the population, and on the other hand, can lead to a shortage of labor resources and a decrease in the birth rate in the country. The article emphasizes the need to adapt state policy to new realities, including measures to support labor migrants and improve the standard of living of the population. In addition, strategies aimed at improving social security and creating conditions for the return of migrants are considered. Integration within the EAEU and other regional formats seems to be an important step towards improving the demographic situation and economic growth in Central Asia. To achieve sustainable results, it is necessary to consider not only economic but also social aspects, which will create conditions for harmonious and stable development of the region in the future.

АНАЛИЗ ЭКСПОРТА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФАРМАЦЕВТИЧЕСКОЙ ПРОДУКЦИИ

Export of goods, including medicines and medical devices, is desirable for the economic development of every country. The aim of the study is to examine the state, structure and development trends of Russian pharmaceutical exports. The study materials were data from the United Nations (UN) trade database for the period 2019-2023. The methods of content analysis, time series analysis, analysis, synthesis and generalization of information were used. To assess the possibility of expanding the geographic presence of Russian pharmaceutical products, data on exports to countries within the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) were excluded from the study. It was revealed that the share of pharmaceutical exports to countries outside the EAEU varies significantly in the study period: from 64% in 2021 to 45% in 2022. There was a decrease in the number of countries to which goods of group 30 "Pharmaceutical products" are exported from the Russian Federation, from 119 countries in 2019 to 91 in 2023. As of 2023, the leading countries purchasing domestic pharmaceutical products were: Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Nicaragua, Slovenia, the Republic of Moldova, Georgia, Uganda, Finland, Morocco. During the study period, the volume of exports of domestic goods increased by 35.2% (in monetary terms). It should be noted that the sales volumes of the vaccine segment increased multiple times in 2021. The bulk of exports of group 30 goods are medicines consisting of mixed or unmixed products - 61.4%; human blood, animal blood, immune serums - 35.4%. The study showed the possibility of expanding the geographic presence of the Russian pharmaceutical industry, possibly through the countries of Latin America, Southeast Asia and the Middle East.

Strategic reflections on digital transformation, scientific literacy, and labor market development in the Eurasian Economic Union: Insights from the case of Kazakhstan

This article examines the digital transformation processes in the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), focus­ing on Kazakhstan to explore the intersection of technological development, scientific literacy, and labor market evolution. Drawing on official documents, regional initiatives, and scholarly literature, the study analyzes national and supranational strategies that foster digital ecosystems, respond to workforce ad­aptation challenges, and promote citizen science and technology competencies. The analysis identifies key initiatives adopted by the EEU, including cross-border employment platforms, digital customs sys­tems, and national education and cybersecurity strategies. It also evaluates these initiatives’ implications from socio-educational and economic perspectives. Particular attention is given to scientific and digital literacy, which is defined as the ability to critically engage with technological environments and scien­tific information in daily and professional life. The study argues that Kazakhstan’s digital agenda should prioritize inclusive access to infrastructure, reform the educational system toward competency-based learning, align workforce reskilling with scientific and digital competencies, and strengthen research and innovation ecosystems. In this context, the article formulates strategic guidelines for Kazakhstan and the EEU to ensure equitable, participatory, and scientifically grounded digital transformation processes. Ultimately, the study contributes to the broader debate on how emerging economies can align digital development with inclusive education and labor strategies, thereby reinforcing the role of scientific lit­eracy as a structural component of sustainable digitalization.

Has the Eurasian Economic Union actually increased members’ trade?

ABSTRACT The reintegration of post-Soviet economies has unfolded in multiple phases, reflecting the complex economic interdependencies among former Soviet republics. A pivotal milestone in this process is the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), a Russia-led initiative aimed at deepening regional economic integration. Amid persistent uncertainty over its trade implications, this paper reevaluates the ex-post trade effects of EAEU membership using appropriate econometric techniques. Specifically, the study investigates whether the EAEU has promoted international trade among its members by substituting for domestic sales, or conversely, discouraged it by diverting trade toward domestic sales. The analysis covers four major sectors: manufacturing, agriculture, mining and energy, and services. The results suggest that EAEU membership has generally constrained trade flows, reducing both intra-regional and external trade. Additionally, the results reveal significant heterogeneity in trade effects across member countries and trade directions in all sectors. Furthermore, the study identifies differential bilateral and unilateral impacts across various manufacturing and agricultural industries. These outcomes underscore the need to reassess and recalibrate trade liberalization policies within the EAEU framework to ensure more inclusive and effective trade gains for all member states.

Tax incentives, soft credit programs, and economic welfare: Qualitative study of rural farmers in Kyrgyzstan

Agriculture remains central to Kyrgyzstan’s economy, yet rural farmers continue to face deep-rooted challenges that hinder their economic progress. In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, the country’s heavy reliance on food imports—particularly from Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) partners—exposed severe food security vulnerabilities. The sudden restriction of flour imports from Russia and Kazakhstan highlighted the country’s limited domestic production capacity. In response, the Kyrgyz government introduced a tax moratorium on agricultural land (2022–2024) and launched targeted soft loan programs through state banks such as JSC Aiyl Bank and JSC RSK Bank to improve the financial stability of farmers and stimulate productivity. This study explores how these policy measures have impacted smallholder farmers by drawing on in-depth interviews with farmers across three provinces. While tax exemptions were acknowledged, they were often seen as offering only marginal benefits. In contrast, soft credit programs provided real opportunities for investment in inputs and machinery, yet access remained difficult due to complex procedures and collateral requirements. The findings suggest that although recent reforms have contributed to reducing food imports and strengthening food security, the current structure of support programs needs refinement. Expanding outreach, simplifying loan access, and better aligning policies with farmer realities are key to achieving inclusive rural development.

Armeniaʼs foreign policy: between diversification and dependence

The structural and geopolitical barriers that limit Armeniaʼs ability to shift its foreign policy away from russia toward the European Union (EU) have been studied. The relevance of this study lies in understanding why, despite recent interaction with the EU – particularly via the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (CEPA) – Armenia remains strategically attached to russia. The hypothesis was tested that deep infrastructural dependence on this country, as well as institutional ties such as membership in the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), significantly hinder Armeniaʼs foreign policy autonomy. Qualitative analysis methods of specific cases were applied using dependency theory, based on institutional texts, trade and energy data, as well as geopolitical events from 1991 to 2023. The results of the study confirm that although EU – Armenia cooperation has deepened, particularly after the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, the EU engagement remains mainly symbolic and non-military. Western actors do not offer reliable alternative security guarantees. At the same time, russia retains the strong deterrent capabilities through economic pressure or political influence. It is concluded that Armeniaʼs foreign policy remains structurally constrained and that a real shift away from this country, even if politically desirable, is hindered by both external and internal obstacles.

Eurasian integration: analysis of the key documents adopted by the EAEU member states

Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia are involved in the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). The creation of the integration bloc was preceded by various documents that defined the approaches of individual countries in the post-Soviet area to interaction with their neighbors. The documents laid the foundation for subsequent interaction between the former Soviet republics. Having signed the treaty on the formation of the EAEU, each of the states adopted different documents – bilateral and multilateral agreements, which define their strategies of cooperation within the framework of the integration platform. It helped forming a common legal field for further rapprochement. Special attention is paid to the key documents that reflect the positions of the EAEU member states. Each of the EAEU countries has adopted a sufficient number of documents that highlight the policy of individual countries on the issue of integration. Such strategic papers also reveal the nature of cooperation between the countries of the post-Soviet area. The article analyses how Russia’s partners in the EAEU access the goals and objectives of integration in Eurasia. The paper also evaluates the prospects for their further cooperation among themselves and with other actors beyond the post-Soviet area. This is a separate group of states that directly or indirectly influence the Eurasian integration. The main attention is paid to the evolution of ideas and provisions in the documents of the EAEU members with regard to their position within the framework of the bloc, their analysis was carried out.

BRICS, SCO and EAEU Integration in Context of Formation of Multipolar World

The purpose of the research. The article discusses changes in world politics associated with the strengthening of the role of new international organizations and structures, such as BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). These organizations are becoming key elements of the emerging multipolar system of international relations, offering alternative approaches to solving global problems and contributing to the strengthening of cooperation between the countries of the Global South and the East. Particular attention is paid to Russia’s active participation in these structures, which emphasizes its importance in the formation of a new world order. The results of the XVI BRICS Summit in Kazan, the prospects for the integration of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) with BRICS and the SCO, as well as the challenges associated with the implementation of these ambitious goals are analyzed. The article also discusses the role of Asia in the new world order and the impact of the decisions of individual countries, such as Kazakhstan, on integration processes. Results. As a result of the conducted research, the authors come to the conclusion that BRICS and SCO are becoming key elements of the emerging multipolar system of international relations. The associations offer an alternative approach to solving international problems based on the principle of inclusiveness, justice and equality in international affairs. Russia initiates new ideas and projects, playing a key role in the development of such associations as BRICS, SCO and EAEU. The economic potential of the integration of the countries of the Global South is increasing. However, there are new challenges and threats that the member countries of the BRICS, EAEU and SCO associations face on their way to integration. Nevertheless, Asia, due to its demographic, economic, and technological advantages, is becoming the center of a new world order. The authors also highlighted further prospects for expanding integration processes both in the BRICS, SCO, and EAEU spaces, as well as between the member states of these associations. Research methodology. This study uses an integrated approach combining several methods to analyze the prospects for the integration of BRICS, SCO and EAEU in the context of the formation of a multipolar world: analysis of literature and documents, review of existing research; analysis of the regulatory framework; assessment of trade and economic indicators, assessment of the dynamics of trade turnover, investments and other economic indicators characterizing the interaction between the BRICS, SCO and EAEU member countries; comparison of macroeconomic indicators to assess the effectiveness of integration processes; content analysis of events and events, summits and meetings; study of the content of bilateral meetings of the leaders of the participating countries to determine priority areas of interaction. The work also uses expert assessments and opinions, as well as predictive analysis, trend extrapolation, and scenario analysis.

Issues of Integration Processes of the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China

Recent years have been characterized by a serious transformation of cooperation in the Greater Eurasia, as well as the strengthening of Russian-Chinese cooperation against the backdrop of a deep geopolitical crisis in relations between Russia and the countries of the collective West. It is customary to talk about a new level of interaction between Russia and China, as well as the development of partnership in the Eurasian space. Especially when it comes to the interaction of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the Silk Road Economic Belt (SREB). In his article, the author attempts to study the implementation of cooperation between Russia and China in order to analyze the issues of integration processes in which the Russian Federation and China participate. The author comes to the conclusion that in order to better understand the features of the integration projects of Russia and China, it is necessary to give an analysis through the historical and political section of the development of both states and their participation in institutional processes in the Eurasian region. It has already been recognized that today integration processes are most actively implemented mainly at the regional level. Both Russia and China demonstrate great interest in participation and integration processes. However, if we talk about integration processes, then undoubtedly both Russia and China have their own vision of integration processes. And if the first state focuses on the activities of states, the second works with initiatives. At the same time, the political and ideological foundations for the creation and implementation of integration projects of Russia and China are based on the principles of sovereignty, independence, social justice and economic development. These principles determine the strategy and tactics of international cooperation of both countries, helping to strengthen their positions on the world stage and ensure stability and prosperity in the region.

In memory of Professor G.I. Osadchaya: humanism and strengthening scientific ties within the Scientific Council «Socio-Political and Demographic Problems of the Formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)» at the Department of Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences

The team of scientists of the Scientific Council «Socio-political and demographic problems of the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)» at the Department of Social Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences (hereinafter referred to as the Scientific Council), representing the international scientific community of Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, deeply mourns the irreparable loss, passing away — Galina Ivanovna Osadcha, Chairman of the Scientific Council, Head of the Department for the Study of Socio-Demographic Processes in the EAEU at the Institute for Demographic Research of the National Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Sociological Sciences, Professor Galina Ivanovna Osadcha, is an outstanding sociologist, wise leader, versatile talented person and loyal friend. At the end of March 2025, an expanded meeting of the Scientific Council was held in Moscow at the Institute of Demographic Research of the Federal Research Sociological Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences (hereinafter — IDI FNSC RAS). The scientific report «Integration processes in the Eurasian Economic Union: Socio-demographic aspects was presented during the meeting. To the 10th anniversary of the EAEU», dedicated to the memory of Professor G.I. Osadcha. The event dedicated to the memory of G.I. Osadcha included a series of reports from representatives of academic and scientific educational institutions. At the end of the meeting, the participants came to the conclusion that the presented results could be useful both for supranational regulators of integration processes within the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), as well as for state and non-state institutions of the member states of the Union. The application of the obtained results can contribute to improving the efficiency of integration processes, contributing to the implementation of the tasks set for the Union, and stimulate further research in the field of integration in the context of Greater Eurasia.

Contribution to the sociological science of Professor G.I. Osadchaya: the results of research on the social dimension of integration processes in the Eurasian Economic Union

On January 20, 2025, an outstanding Soviet and Russian sociologist, Doctor of Sociological Sciences, professor, and chief researcher passed away. — Head of the Department for the Study of Socio-Demographic Processes in the EAEU, IDI FNISC RAS, Chairman of the Scientific Council «Socio-Political and Demographic Problems of the Formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)» at the UN RAS, member of the Advisory Council of the Eurasian Information and Analytical Consortium, Chairman of the Sociology Section of the Central House of Scientists of the Russian Academy of Sciences, member of the Scientific Council «Demographic and Migration Problems Russia» at the UN RAS, Member of the Presidium of the Federal Educational and Methodological Association for an enlarged group of specialties and directions «Sociology and Social Work», Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation, Honorary Worker of the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation, laureate of the Government of the Russian Federation in the field of education. The passing of Professor G.I. Osadcha caused a huge irreparable loss for the entire scientific community, including in the vast Eurasian space. Numerous letters and telegrams of condolences from scientific and educational organizations, from leading scientists, colleagues, alumni, friends and like-minded people of G.I. Osadcha, came in an endless stream to the Institute of Demographic Research of the Federal Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences from all regions of the Russian Federation, the member states of the Eurasian Economic Union (hereinafter — EAEU) and many other countries of the Middle East and far abroad. This article reflects the main results of the intellectual and scientific research activities of the Department for the Study of Socio-Demographic Processes in the EAEU of the Institute for Demographic Research of the National Research Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences under the leadership of G.I. Osadcha.

Preclinical safety studies of medicines in the Eurasian economic union

This article analyzes the regulatory, scientific, and methodological documents of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the Russian Federation devoted to conducting preclinical studies on the safety of medicines. Areas for which it is advisable to develop special EAEU guidelines for conducting preclinical safety studies have been identified. Based on an analysis of the international regulatory and methodological framework, elements of foreign experience in preclinical assessment of the safety of medicines for transfer to the practice of the Union are proposed.

Cardiovascular Safety Assessment of Medicines in Preclinical In vivo Studies: A Review

INTRODUCTION. The cardiovascular safety evaluation of medicines using in vivo models is a necessary preclinical step that is performed either in safety pharmacology studies or in toxicity studies. The design of safety pharmacology studies primarily involves assessing the potential of a test substance to prolong cardiac ventricular repolarisation, without in-depth investigation of potential structural damage to the heart and blood vessels. Toxicity studies usually do not include electrophysiological testing. The regulatory standards of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and the International Council for Harmonisation (ICH) lack detailed guidance on the use of specific markers of cardiovascular dysfunction.AIM. This study aimed to develop an integrated approach to assessing the cardiac and vascular toxicity of medicinal products in preclinical in vivo studies.DISCUSSION. Cardiovascular function can be assessed in both small laboratory animals (rodents) and larger animals, such as rabbits, ferrets, dogs, minipigs, and primates. The toxic effects of a test medicinal product on the cardiovascular system of animals may be manifested as physiological, biochemical, and structural changes in the systems and organs. Therefore, the assessment of cardiovascular function should be based on a combination of instrumental, laboratory, and histological methods. First of all, physiological and laboratory studies are applicable. It is recommended to perform electrocardiography, heart rate and blood pressure measurements, and quantification of markers of cardiovascular dysfunction and structural cell damage. For more in-depth analysis, histological and immunohistochemical studies of cardiac and vascular tissues are recommended to assess changes at the tissue and cellular levels.CONCLUSIONS. An effective strategy for detecting cardiovascular disorders is the use of an integrated approach that, on the one hand, facilitates a comprehensive assessment of the possible toxic effects of a medicinal product and, on the other hand, increases the translational potential of the data obtained at the preclinical stage of research.

Methods and Criteria for the Effectiveness of Kazakhstan's Economic Integration in the Eurasian Economic Union

Purpose of the research. The methods and criteria for comprehensively assessing the effectiveness of a country's economic integration within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) can be identified. Three main methods for evaluating the effectiveness of economic integration within the EAEU can be distinguished. The first method is the method of trade integration among EAEU member states, which assesses the dynamics, structure, and volumes of mutual trade between the countries of the union. The second method is the method of assessing the effectiveness of economic integration based on a set of strategic priorities for economic development. The third method is the method of national competitiveness, which evaluates how participation in the EAEU affects the overall competitiveness of the national economy. Despite the fact that certain aspects of evaluation, such as competitiveness analysis, are universal, these methods will require adaptation for countries outside the EAEU. This is due to differences in the specifics of regional cooperation (e.g., in the EU or ASEAN) and integration mechanisms (such as currency or customs unions with varying regulations). Thus, the proposed methods can be developed with consideration for the specifics of the EAEU, but with some adaptation, they could also be used to assess integration in other unions.Methodology. A variety of methods were used in the course of the study: macroeconomic analysis, comparative analysis of national economic models, econometric modeling, and a comprehensive approach to assessing the achievement of economic benefits, stability, and competitiveness of the country within the framework of the EAEU. A literature review of academic works on the topic of the study was conducted, which allowed for an examination of Kazakhstan's role in the development of trade and economic relations between the member states of the EAEU.Originality / value. The originality and value of the study lie in examining the impact of global and regional integration on Kazakhstan's economic stability and development, considering the changes in the country's economy since its accession to the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). This provides insights into the effectiveness of the integration and helps identify future development vectors for Kazakhstan, based on improving trade relations and strengthening economic ties among EAEU member states.Findings. Key indicators contributing to the economic benefits, stability, and competitiveness of a country within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) have been identified. It was revealed that Kazakhstan's active participation in the EAEU contributes to the more effective functioning of the national economy through the even distribution of benefits between member countries, the creation of conditions for integration in specific sectors, the elimination of barriers to the free movement of goods and services, the increase in investments, and the development of the most competitive sectors of Kazakhstan's economy. Practical recommendations have been provided aimed at establishing trusting trade and economic relations between the EAEU member states and further increasing the EAEU's economic growth rates in the long term. The role of Kazakhstan as a reliable player on the Eurasian continent (including Western and Eastern Europe, as well as other regions of Asia that are not part of the EAEU) has been substantiated, highlighting its contribution to creating conditions for the development of the Union's internal market and expanding its export potential, considering the country's transport and logistics capabilities.

The first generic tirzepatide GP30931: physicochemical and biological similarity to the reference drug

Introduction. Metabolic syndrome is a multifactorial complex of metabolic disorders accompanied by type 2 diabetes mellitus and abdominal obesity. In the pharmacological correction of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus, the greatest effect is demonstrated by dual agonists of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), in particular tirzepatide. The original drug (Mundjaro, pln: tirzepatide) is not registered in the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), which limits its availability to patients and leads to the need to develop a domestic generic.Aim. Conducting a physicochemical and biological characterization of the drug Sejaro® (GP30931) in comparison with the original drug Mundjaro® to establish their comparability.Materials and methods. Three batches of each drug (solution for subcutaneous administration, 25 mg/ml) were studied. The primary structure was verified using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), peptide mapping and NMR (2D-NMR-1H-1H 1H/1H-TOCSY). Secondary structure, higher order structures and aggregation were assessed by circular dichroism (CD), high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), fluorescence quantum yield (FQY) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). Impurity profiles were analyzed using size-exclusion and reversed-phase HPLC. Functional activity was determined in cellular tests for activation of calcium currents through GLP-1 and GIP receptors with an assessment of the half-maximal effective concentration (EC50); equivalence was confirmed by the two-sided test (TOST, 90 % confidence interval).Results and discussion. HPLC-MS and mapping confirmed identical mass (4,810.52 Da) and amino acid sequence. NMR spectra, CD and CF profiles, and DLS were completely consistent, which allows us to conclude that the secondary and tertiary structures of the preparations are structurally identical. The content of all types of impurities in GP30931 did not exceed the Munjaro values. The difference in EC50 values for activation of GLP-1 and GIP receptors was ≤5 %, the comparative biological activity was within 0.80–1.25.Conclusion. The complex of studies conducted using orthogonal methods showed that "Sejaro" (GP30931) and "Mundjaro" are structurally identical, comparable in impurity profile and biologically equivalent. The obtained data make a significant contribution to the scientific substantiation of the equivalence of the reproduced drug tirzepatide and the reference original drug, thereby providing a reliable basis for further registration and clinical use of Sejaro® without conducting additional clinical studies.

To What Extent a Possible FTA between China and Kazakhstan Beneficial? A CGE-Based Evidence

The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) recently conducted a free trade agreement with China, which was signed in 2018 but is not yet in force. This paper utilizes the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model with the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) database for quantitative analysis of the economy-wide effects of a hypothetical agreed FTA between Kazakhstan (excluding other members of the EAEU) and China. This proposed FTA has relative importance for the two countries since Kazakhstan is a member of the EAEU and because of the recently imposed Western sanctions on Russia, these sanctions might develop channels that could distort the benefits of EAEU. The paper examines four short- and long-term scenar-ios involving fixed and flexible current account positions. The results highlight how the elimination of tariffs on bilateral merchandise trade would help both Ka-zakhstan's and China's economies through a potential free trade agreement. Our results indicate four important policy implications: Firstly, rather than trade diver-sion, this potential FTA is seen as an enhancing factor in generating a larger trade creation effect. Secondly, resources will be reallocated in each economy to the sec-tors in which they are more advantageous. Thirdly, in terms of the macroeconomic implications, we find that real GDP, EV, and real consumption all show some gains. Finally, as for the sectoral effects, the findings indicate that bilateral trade would increase, with China's exports to Kazakhstan growing more quickly than those of Kazakhstan to China.

ЕВРАЗИЙСКАЯ ИНТЕГРАЦИЯ: НЕКОТОРЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ СОЦИАЛЬНО-ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОГО СОТРУДНИЧЕСТВА

This study examines the relevant aspects of state interactions within Eurasian integration and the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU). It analyzes trade relations, tariff regulations, and joint project implementation. Statistical data show that integration impacts labor migration within the union. Key trends include increased trade turnover and improved conditions for labor migrants, contributing to higher living standards, alongside economic imbalances between member states. Mechanisms for intersectoral cooperation and addressing labor market access inequality are proposed to harmonize youth policies and optimize migration. The potential of Eurasian integration to strengthen the regional geopolitical position is emphasized in this study.

Trans-Regional Integration and Connectivity in Central Asia: Strategies of Russia, China and European Union

Abstract Trans-regional integration and connectivity has been considered mostly in the sense of cross border transport and logistics corridors for regional and inter-regional trade in the context of this particular research work. Central Asia, after the breakup of former Soviet Union, reappeared in the ebb and flow of international exchanges as the global and regional powers are intensely engaged in developing regional and trans-regional transport corridors across the region. Russia, China and European Union (EU) have developed and operating their own plans of integration and connectivity. Russia’s approaches to trans-regional integration in Eurasia’s heartland demonstrate the characteristics of both ‘open regionalism’ under Greater Eurasian Partnership and ‘close regionalism’ under the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) framework. China’s plans of regional and trans-regional integration in Eurasia’s heartland under the BRI are based on the concept of open regionalism despite having geographical contiguity. EU’s approach towards regional and trans-regional integration in Central Asia is also based on the principles of open regionalism where Middle Corridor has become a necessity. Multilateralism under the regional organizations is also at work for enhanced cross border hard and soft connectivity. Hence a number of trans-continental Eurasian trade and transport corridors across Central Asia are being developed giving impetus to regional cooperation in Central Asia. The paper attempts to answer three main questions; how regionalism and trans-regional integration has been evolving in Central Asian context? How Russia, China and European Union (EU) have been developing their plans of trans-regional connectivity in altered regional configuration?, and how the trans-regional connectivity plans impacting Central Asia as a region? The approach in this study is explanatory and exploratory and methodology adopted is qualitative in nature mainly descriptive and analytical.

Planning a clinical trial programme for medicinal products for chronic constipation: An analysis of the European Medicines Agency Guideline

INTRODUCTION. Chronic constipation is a widespread condition associated with substantial direct and indirect costs for diagnosis and treatment and a significant reduction in the quality of life of patients. There is a need for the development and clinical studies of novel medicinal products for chronic constipation due to the limited availability of effective treatment options and concerns regarding the long-term safety and tolerability of these options. Currently, the Russian Federation and other Member States of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) lack guidelines governing the design and conduct of clinical trials of new medicinal products for chronic constipation.AIM. This study aimed to analyse the relevant international approaches and methods as a potential basis for drafting a regional guideline for planning clinical trial programmes for novel medicinal products for chronic constipation.DISCUSSION. This study analysed the main provisions of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) outlined in the Guideline on the evaluation of medicinal products for the treatment of chronic constipation (including opioid-induced constipation) and for bowel cleansing. The authors identified special considerations for conducting pharmacology studies and confirmatory clinical trials (selection of the clinical trial population, design, and duration; selection of primary and secondary efficacy endpoints; and safety assessment). Additionally, the authors highlighted special considerations for confirmatory clinical trials in paediatric and geriatric populations.CONCLUSIONS. The EMA guideline covers all the requirements that are necessary for designing a clinical trial programme for a novel medicinal product for chronic constipation. Therefore, the EMA guideline can inform the ongoing development of the corresponding guideline for the Russian Federation and other EAEU Member States.