Largely relying on the 2004/07 enlargement process and the soft power of the values and norms that were incorporated as normative principles in its accession conditions, the European Union has successfully supported the peaceful development, democratisation and economic marketisation of post-communist East Central Europe and the Baltics. However, the EU’s impact on developments in the other two regions of post-communist Europe – the Western Balkans (WB) and six post-Soviet Eastern Partnership (EaP) states – has been less positive by far. The paper argues that the primary reasons for the EU’s less successful impact on developments in the WB and EaP countries should be sought in the EU's decision to stop using the enlargement process as the main instrument for promoting and spreading EU values and norms to candidate countries following the completion of the 2004/07 enlargement round. While the EU had persistently refused to include the EaP states in the enlargement process until very recently, the enlargement process for the WB states since 2007 has primarily been used to address stability–security challenges in the region and advance related foreign policy goals and priorities of E Member States

Abstract. This article examines the strategic role of energy diplomacy as a fundamental instrument through which states ensure their energy security, economic resilience, and long-term stability. In the contemporary global landscape – characterised by the transition to renewable energy sources, increasing geopolitical tensions, and rising economic interdependence – traditional mechanisms of energy management are no longer sufficient. The subject of this research is the multidimensional function of diplomacy in strengthening national energy systems, shaping international energy relations, and supporting the implementation of sustainable strategies, with a focus on the case of the Republic of Moldova. Methodologically, the study adopts a theoretical-analytical approach, which involves the examination of academic literature, policy documents, and recent developments in international energy governance. A comparative analysis is also employed to contrast Moldova’s diplomatic initiatives with broader European and regional models of energy cooperation. Additionally, the research uses qualitative policy analysis to explore how diplomatic tools – such as bilateral negotiations, multilateral agreements, and participation in regional energy platforms – contribute to enhancing energy security and diversifying supply sources. This combination of methods enables a holistic understanding of the mechanisms through which diplomacy shapes the national energy agenda. The purpose of the study is to identify the ways in which diplomacy can reduce Moldova’s historical vulnerabilities, especially its dependence on a limited number of external suppliers, and to demonstrate how integrating into European energy structures strengthens both security and economic competitiveness. By analysing diplomatic efforts related to energy diversification, cross-border interconnections, infrastructure development, and cooperation with European institutions, the study highlights the importance of proactive and coherent external engagement.The conclusions indicate that energy diplomacy has become a central pillar of national security policy, particularly for small and geopolitically exposed states such as the Republic of Moldova. Diplomatic actions – including participation in European energy markets, negotiating alternative supply routes, and securing financial and technical support from international partners – significantly increase national resilience. The findings also show that Moldova’s alignment with EU norms and integration into regional networks provide long-term benefits in terms of sustainability, affordability, and infrastructure modernisation. Ultimately, the study demonstrates that diplomacy is not only a tool of political communication but a strategic instrument capable of shaping energy policy, reducing external risks, and ensuring the country’s economic and security interests in an increasingly volatile global environment.

Half of the world's population currently lives in cities, leading to significant landscape transformations that affect freshwater ecosystems. These changes include increased imperviousness and water runoff, frequent municipal and industrial discharges, and the destruction of riparian corridors and floodplains, resulting in a consistent decline in biodiversity and ecosystem services, and posing new challenges for both environmental and human health. In the last decades, we observed an increase in water-related policies, echoing growing concern with water safety and freshwater ecosystems degradation. However, existing policies frequently fail to provide practical or efficient results or are insufficient. The present manuscript aims to highlight relevant international legislation and directives and to identify potential gaps that should be tackled to promote the protection of urban river and stream ecosystems as well as human health in cities. Despite the existence of EU norms that can protect the urban river and streams ecosystems in the European Union, such as the Water Framework Directive, the Habitats Directive, the Environmental Liability Directive and the Nature Restoration Regulation, or different agendas at a global level, the legislation is dispersed, subject to different interpretations and to conflicting interests in the city's management. Therefore, urban freshwater ecosystems would benefit from the establishment of specific legislation that supports the action of municipal authorities, protecting their biodiversity and safeguarding adequate ecosystem functioning, the existence of floodplains, natural margins, and riparian forests, to guarantee a safe environment and improved well-being for the population of cities.

This book explores one of the central issues in contemporary international relations and, simultaneously, the confrontation between Russia and the West: the eastward expansion of the EU. Globally, the eastward expansion of the EU holds the potential for the EU to emerge as a new pole of global politics, capable of significantly influencing the balance of power in the modern world. Regionally, the latest wave of EU enlargement, which has included post-socialist European states, could be decisive in establishing a new type of interstate relations on the continent and in determining the extent to which Eastern European and Baltic countries adapt to EU standards and norms. In other words, it could have a direct impact on reform processes in post-Soviet and post-communist countries. For Eastern European countries, analyzing this process is important not only for determining prospects for further development within the EU political system or for the Eastern Partnership countries. This book analyzes the dramatic changes in Eastern Europe following the COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s ongoing, aggressive, full-scale war against Ukraine, which began on February 24, 2022. In this context, the authors of various chapters in this book examine the economic, social, institutional, and political instability in the countries of the eastern part of the EU.

Introduction. Capital markets are important for economic growth because they help savers and investors share their money in a way that makes the most sense. For rising economies, especially those that are having trouble rebuilding after a war, it is important to have strong capital markets to attract both domestic and foreign investment. The purpose of the paper is to look at how public policy can help improve capital markets that aren't doing well. It does this by looking at what has happened in other countries and drawing conclusions about what Ukraine must do to improve its capital market while the war is still going on and, in the future, when it needs to rebuild. Results. It has been shown that successful capital market development needs broad policy frameworks that include things like harmonizing regulations, building up institutions' capacity, changing the pension system, and protecting investors. Public policy changes need to deal with both supply-side issues (like institutional frameworks and market infrastructure) and demand-side issues (like investor confidence and financial literacy). This has been shown to be true in the European Union, Asian emerging markets, and economies that have been through a conflict. Ukraine's capital market has certain specific problems, including as prohibitions during warfare, a small market capitalization, and gaps in regulation. Conclusion. For the capital market in Ukraine to flourish, the government should focus on making sure that investments are secure, aligning legislation with EU norms, setting properly funded pension systems, and strengthening market infrastructure. All these things should be done while simultaneously satisfying the special needs for funding during war and rebuilding.

The development of varietal plant resources is a priority for Ukraine on its path toward integration not only into the European Union but also into the global economy, as well as for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Ukraine is among the first countries to have supported the European Green Deal and incorporated its key provisions into the Strategy for the Development of Agriculture and Rural Areas in Ukraine for the period until 2030. This article presents the results of an analysis of the regulatory and legal framework of the European Community and its member states (Poland, Germany, and Netherlands) regarding the current practices of variety registration through inclusion in national catalogues, the Common Catalogue, and post-registration variety studies aimed at achieving the SDGs. It was found that EU legislation (Council Directive 2002/53/EC) and the laws of individual member states — such as Poland (Seed Act, 2013), Germany (Seed Marketing Act — Saatgutverkehrsgesetz (SaatG), 2004, as amended in 2022), and the Netherlands (Seeds and Planting Materials Act — Zaaizaaden plantgoedwet, as amended in 2016) — provide for the distribution of a variety within a defined territory in accordance with EU directives and regulations, while national specificities exist in each country. The findings provide valuable insights into the experience of European countries in the assessment and use of plant varieties for achieving the SDGs, particularly within integrated production systems. To establish an effective variety assessment system in Ukraine and to inform farmers about the most adapted varieties for diverse agro-production conditions and processing industries, it is essential to adapt variety testing and evaluation to the market economy and to EU norms and standards. As part of this effort, the establishment of a nationwide post-registration research system should be regulated at the legislative level, with the implementation of corresponding measures to ensure its operation.

ABSTRACT Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) are pivotal in safeguarding against autocratization, yet authoritarian governments often erode the civil and political rights necessary for CSOs to counteract democratic decline. This is exemplified in Turkey, where despite a burgeoning civil society, Europeanization efforts have been reversed, leading to increased repression of CSOs by the government. This article examines the EU adjustments in its democracy promotion tools in the face of Turkey's defiance of EU norms and suppression of CSOs. The study reveals a downward spiral of delegitimization and criminalization, rendering EU tools like shaming and funding adjustments ineffective against legal restrictions and government stigma towards foreign funding. Through a content analysis of government statements, EU country reports spanning 2013–2022 and interviews with stakeholders, the article sheds light on external civil society protection during autocratization and how internal developments counter democracy promotion efforts.

The process of European integration of the Baltic States, which have already joined the EU, has its own specific features that have a multidirectional impact on their economies. The purpose of the study is to determine the specifics and effects of modern European integration processes characteristic of the transforming national economies of the Baltic States. The article analyzes the following aspects of deepening the integration of the Baltic States into the EU: maximum incorporation of EU norms into national legislation; unconditional support for major initiatives of the European Commission; accession to the Schengen area; "infrastructure integration", i.e. the desire to get out of the position of a transport and energy "island" within the EU. It is concluded that in the process of further active cooperation with the EU, it is important for the Baltic States to make fuller use of the advantages and opportunities created by European integration, and at the same time to implement measures to neutralize its negative consequences.

Thessaloniki’s postWWII city center and its main element, the multistorey housing building, aka polykatoikia, address emerging challenges of a future authenticity evaluation. The aspects of the information sources considered in authenticity judgments spread from XL to S scale. The transformation of the artistic, historic, social, and scientific dimensions is challenging the postwar city identity and its ‘Ordinary Everyday Modernism’ buildings parameters of authenticity. Thessaloniki’s peculiarity is that 2/3 of the city center has been designated Historical Site since 1994 [XL scale], containing both listed and non-individually listed buildings. The city's building blocks [L scale] are constituted by a diverse assemblage of built and internal free space. The built part consists of various eras constructions exhibiting diverse architectural styles, techniques, and other internal and external factors. The polykatoikia [M scale], integrates the contemporary practices concerning changes such as the middle-class lifestyle, the short-term rentals opportunities and the energy consumption reduction EU norms. The polykatoikia’s distinctive ownership model which divides the building into numerous individual ownerships [S scale], like flats and stores, enters a new era that affects significant aspects like the building’s uses and functions from a bottom-up view. The paper is based on the author's postdoctoral research (Alexiadou, 2024a); recent literature and case studies analysis of OEM buildings interventions support the objectives.

The alignment of Ukraine’s customs policy with the standards of the European Union is one of the key priorities of the country’s European integration. This process involves the harmonization of customs legislation, procedures, and instruments with EU norms, offering a range of significant benefits for Ukraine. The customs sector plays a crucial role in the economic integration of Ukraine with the EU. An effective customs policy aligned with European standards facilitates the simplification of customs formalities and the reduction of trade barriers with EU member states, contributes to the creation of a favorable investment climate, enhances the competitiveness of the national economy, and improves the transparency and efficiency of customs authorities. The main international legal instrument governing the process of aligning Ukraine’s customs policy with EU standards is the Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union. This strategic document provides for the establishment of a Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area and defines the general framework of cooperation between Ukraine and the EU, including the approximation of customs legislation. The article is devoted to the analysis of the European Union’s customs reform, which is planned to be implemented by 2040, and its impact on Ukraine’s European integration process. The main stages of the development of the EU customs system are identified, key elements of customs legislation are examined, as well as the changes and additions introduced in 2023–2024, including the simplification of customs formalities through the wider use of artificial intelligence, the European Customs Data Hub (the new EU customs database), and the new EU Customs Authority. Particular attention is given to aspects of the EU’s experience that are relevant for Ukraine, especially in the context of customs process digitalization and the establishment of new customs institutions. The article also outlines prospects for Ukraine in the context of customs service reform, with a focus on integration into the European customs space, combating corruption, and improving business conditions. The conclusions highlight the importance of aligning Ukrainian customs legislation with EU standards to ensure sustainable economic development and effective integration into the European Union.

The European integration of Ukraine has become the strategic reference point for determining the priority areas of state policy that require modernization. One of these areas is the policy of the Ukrainian state in the field of health care, which provides that in the process of adaptation to EU norms and standards, the organization of medical care is transformed through the practical mastery of the public health paradigm. This paradigm includes prevention, epidemiological surveillance, education, protection of human rights and inter-sectoral cooperation. In accordance with European practice, public health policy is an inter-sectoral policy that requires special attention to institutional and human resources. After signing the Association Agreement, Ukraine began the transformation of the public health system, deploying the process of legislative and institutional harmonization, which was based on the Law of Ukraine “On the Public Health System” adopted in 2022 and the created coordination structure, the Public Health Center. The main problems that must be solved by the Ukrainian state through the implementation of public health policy based on European principles in this area are as follows: transformation of the system of training specialists in the field of public health on an interdisciplinary basis (epidemiologists, data analysts, social workers); ensuring equal access to medical and preventive services, especially for vulnerable groups; resource and financial support for the public health institute; overcoming resistance from medical institutions focused on a clinic-centric model; development of the digital infrastructure of public health.

The article examines the need to codify labour legislation - adoption of a new labour code that will regulate labour relations in accordance with the standards of international law and the acquis of the European Union, as well as taking into account the introduction of martial law in Ukraine and the need to attract foreign workers to rebuild Ukraine after the end of the war. When preparing the draft code, it should be borne in mind that Ukraine, as a candidate for accession to the European Union, should harmonise its labour legislation with EU norms, but at the same time retain those provisions of national legislation that are well applied in practice and do not give rise to labour disputes when rights provided therein are exercised. The need to codify the legal acts regulating labour relations is due to a number of factors. First, the current Labour Code, as well as certain legislative acts adopted before Ukraine’s independence, cannot fully regulate labour relations, as they are aimed at a planned rather than a market economy, at regulating relations between state-owned enterprises, without taking into account relations between employees and employers of enterprises of other forms of ownership and private entrepreneurs who use hired labour. Secondly, the labour legislation adopted before 1991 was focused on the interests of production without taking into account the interests of employees, while the legislation of independent Ukraine should comply with the provisions of the Constitution of Ukraine, where a person, his or her life, health and safety are the highest social value. Thirdly, the current legislation of Ukraine contains a large number of bylaws adopted at different times, which often contradict not only each other but also legislative acts. Fourth, international treaties and agreements to which Ukraine is a party are part of Ukrainian labour legislation, and if they contain rules different from those contained in national legislation, international treaties and agreements apply. Fifth, many articles of the Labour Code have been interpreted by decisions of the Constitutional Court of Ukraine due to their ambiguity. The author supports the views of scholars that the main direction of codification of labour legislation should be liberalisation of legal regulation of labour relations and transition to contractual regulation at all levels. Throughout the publication, the author argues that the relations between the parties to an employment contract should be based on the principles of social partnership, and the interests of employers cannot prevail over the interests of employees. It is noted that the lack of experience in regulating labour relations during martial law and the reconstruction of the State in the post-war period with the involvement of a large number of foreign specialists requires improvement of the legal provisions adopted during the war and further detailed research by scholars of this issue.

The study examines the integration of participatory governance mechanisms in Georgian ministries between 2015 and 2023, using a qualitative, comparative approach based on primary and secondary data sources, within the broader framework of Europeanization. It explores how Georgia’s public policy process has adopted participatory approaches, driven by EU norms (particularly those from OECD/SIGMA) and the EU Association Agreement. The study analyses sectoral strategies, government decrees, and institutional reforms, complemented by primary data from ministry-level interviews. Findings reveal a gradual institutionalization of public consultation practices and increasing alignment with EU administrative standards. Despite progress, citizen involvement remains limited and is not yet broadly or systematically integrated across ministries. While civil society organizations sometimes facilitate engagement, these practices are inconsistent. Political will, administrative capacity, and contextual adaptation are identified as key variables influencing the outcomes of Europeanization. The study highlights both the structural and ideational dimensions of this process, offering reflections on participatory democracy in Georgia, with potential relevance for other EU-neighbouring countries undergoing similar reforms.

ABSTRACT This paper examines the evolving role of civil society in sustaining the European Union’s (EU) normative influence amid the Union’s diminishing capacity to drive change in the European periphery, with a particular focus on Türkiye. As the EU’s transformative agendas wane and its credibility as a normative power erodes, EU-engaged civil society actors in peripheral states seek alternative strategies to uphold the Union as a normative anchor. Drawing on in-depth interviews with high-level representatives and senior experts from prominent EU-engaged Turkish civil society organizations, the study demonstrates that civil society bridges the concerns of local norm advocates in both norm-making and norm-receiving contexts. It also actively contributes to the mutual socialization of the EU and candidate countries in efforts to restore the EU’s normative influence. The findings reaffirm the relevance of civil society within the Normative Power Europe (NPE) framework and highlight its stakeholder role in sustaining and diffusing EU norms.

The article analyzes the state information policy in the field of environmental security under the conditions of hybrid threats arising from the full-scale armed aggression against Ukraine. The relevance of the study stems from the need to respond to a new type of challenges that combine the physical destruction of environmental objects with large-scale disinformation campaigns. These challenges pose a multi-level threat to environmental security, the state’s informational resilience, and public trust in government institutions. A representative example is the destruction of the Kakhovka Hydroelectric Power Plant, which was accompanied by a coordinated information attack aimed at discrediting Ukraine. The aim of this article is to identify key challenges for the state information policy in the field of environmental security during hybrid warfare and to formulate strategic guidelines for its improvement. The theoretical foundation of the study is based on an interdisciplinary methodology incorporating systemic, security-oriented, and informational approaches. The concept of information policy in public administration is analyzed, along with its role in ensuring environmental security as an integral component of national security. Special attention is paid to digital tools that enable transparency, accessibility, and reliability of environmental data. The article proposes strategic directions for enhancing information policy in the field of environmental security, including harmonization with EU norms, implementation of principles of openness and scientific validity, institutional consolidation of information security as a component of environmental policy, strengthening cooperation with civil society and the scientific community, and fostering environmental and media literacy among the population. The results of the study can be used to improve national environmental security policy, relevant legislation, and governmental strategies in the fields of information and environmental security, as well as to enhance Ukraine’s informational resilience in the context of prolonged hybrid warfare.

This article analyses the European Union’s efforts to influence the energy governance beyond its borders. Focusing on EU support for renewable energy policies in Georgia and Tunisia as part of European Green Deal and other EU policy frameworks, we emphasize the importance of business actors, civil society and resistance movements in supporting and contesting the implementation of EU norms. We propose conceptual framework that integrates a critical reassessment of external governance literature with a configurational and decentralised approach to EU external action. This perspective reframes the external dimension of the European Green Deal by moving beyond an EU-centric lens to consider the roles of other international organisations and the autonomy of domestic actors in pursuing their strategies. Both case studies highlight the importance of support coalitions but also domestic contestations and transnational actor configurations.

ABSTRACT In response to Russia's war of aggression against Ukraine, German Chancellor Olaf Scholz declared a Zeitenwende, signalling a fundamental shift in German and European politics. This article argues that the actual impact of this proclamation has been limited regarding German and EU narratives about their relations with Turkey. While there is an increased acknowledgment of Turkey's geopolitical role, this recognition has not translated into a substantive change in the underlying narratives. Utilising a narrative analytical approach, we examine German positions and those of three EU institutions (the European Council, the Parliament, and the Commission), which also reflect German perspectives and consistently employ similar language, forming what can be seen as a ‘master narrative’. All three institutions suggest that accession negotiations with Turkey should neither be resumed under current conditions nor entirely abandoned. German government and parliamentary perspectives, though less detailed, largely echo these European-level narratives, adhering to a framework of transactional cooperation. While the desire for a dynamic partnership with Turkey has been clearly stated, the emphasis remains on significant conditions – such as adherence to EU norms and human rights standards – limiting any fundamental narrative shift. Moreover, Turkey's evolving geopolitical significance is only occasionally acknowledged, illustrating the proclaimed Zeitenwende's limitations.

This paper examines the structural barriers to private domestic investments in Serbia, with a particular focus on the role of corporate taxation and subsidy policy. The analysis combines descriptive empirical data, comparative legal assessment, and institutional diagnostics to explore why domestic investments have remained persistently low relative to both foreign direct investments and levels observed in comparable EU economies. Using Eurostat and World Bank data for the period 2013–2022, the paper documents that total investment growth in Serbia has been primarily driven by rising FDI inflows and increased public investments, while domestic private investments have remained weak. Despite a relatively high fiscal effort devoted to investment incentives, including both tax-based instruments and direct subsidies, the design and allocation of these measures appear to disproportionately benefit large investors – most often foreign. The paper contextualises Serbia’s statutory and effective corporate tax rates within EU norms and identifies significant structural asymmetries in incentive accessibility between firms of different sizes. It also develops a classification of corporate tax incentive regimes in selected EU member states and Serbia, based on the structure and conditions of tax-based investment support, which is used to assess Serbia’s position relative to prevailing EU practices in the design of fiscal incentives. Institutional barriers, including legal uncertainty and administrative inefficiency, further constrain domestic investments. The findings suggest that Serbia’s current investment model is unlikely to support sustainable long-term development unless policy is rebalanced to improve the investment climate for domestic firms. The findings inform policy recommendations aimed at rebalancing incentive structures and strengthening institutional and financial conditions for domestic investments.

Introduction. Modern challenges to the security and development of states in the context of globalization, digital transformation and hybrid threats necessitate a rethinking of approaches to critical infrastructure management. Enterprises in this area are the basis for the life support of society, the functioning of the economy, public administration and national security. Scientific understanding of digitalization and cyber protection of critical infrastructure based on European standards is a timely and socially significant task that requires a comprehensive approach and a clear setting of development priorities. Problem Statement. There is a need to study and adapt the European regulatory environment to Ukrainian realities, as well as develop strategic approaches to digital development and protection of critical infrastructure enterprises. One of the tools for such development can be SMART analysis, which allows you to formulate specific goals, assess risks and build a strategic model of digital transition taking into account security challenges. The purpose is to substantiate approaches to digitalization and cyber protection of critical infrastructure enterprises of Ukraine based on the adaptation of European regulatory standards. Methods. A comprehensive methodology was used, covering system analysis, comparative legal analysis, content analysis of publications, expert assessment, as well as SMART analysis as a tool for strategic planning of digital transformations. A comparative analysis of the EU and Ukraine’s approaches to digital security was carried out, identifying regulatory discrepancies, barriers to harmonization and potential integration points. Results. The possibilities of digitalization and cyber protection of critical infrastructure enterprises of Ukraine were studied, taking into account modern security challenges and the European integration vector of state policy. An analysis of the regulatory and legal principles of digital transformation in the European Union was carried out, which form the basis of regulation in the field of artificial intelligence, digital platforms, personal data and cybersecurity. The potential of these acts for the formation of a sustainable, transparent and inclusive digital infrastructure in Ukraine is revealed. The practical conditions for the implementation of reforms are determined: the phased integration of standards, international support, the development of the regulatory environment and considerations related to industry specifics. The emphasis is also placed on the need for inter-institutional coordination and the development of human capital in the field of digital security. Conclusions. Current EU approaches, in particular in the field of digital sovereignty, ethical regulation of artificial intelligence, protection of personal data and transparency of algorithms, are the basis for the formation of a sustainable digital ecosystem in Ukraine. The research materials can be used to develop strategic documents in the field of digitalization, adapt domestic legislation to EU norms, form a national policy in the field of digital transformation, develop anti-crisis management, as well as further scientific research in the field of cybersecurity, public administration and protection of critical systems.

ABSTRACT This article analyses the European Parliament’s (EP’s) gender equality promotion through parliamentary diplomacy by examining: (a) the relevant strategic, policy and legal frameworks; and (b) the political practice of gender-oriented parliamentary diplomacy in the 9th parliamentary term (2019–2024) towards Saudi Arabia by three key EP institutional actors: the plenary, the Foreign Affairs Committee and the interparliamentary delegation for relations with the Arab Peninsula. The insights are drawn from the data collected through documentary analysis and qualitative analysis in the form of interviews and a survey carried out with Members of the EP (MEPs) and administrative staff. The article argues that the case of gender equality shows that the EP is a highly advanced diplomatic player displaying significant potential to mainstream core EU norms abroad, but that its influence hinges both on the specific socio-cultural and political circumstances in the partner country and on the internal dynamics operating within the EP.