EU Development Policy Research Articles

EU-UK Security and Defence

The UK’s departure from the European Union poses many challenges, not least in the field of security and defence. This paper assesses the implications of this for both parties and tries to outline options for a new bilateral partnership. The paper opens with a reminder of the headline contribution that the UK has made and continues to make to European security and defence and its significance as an actor within the Union. It goes on to suggest that Brexit is a lose-lose scenario for both partners, notwithstanding a shared set of security threats and an overall common approach to meeting them. The paper outlines the significant advances in the development of CSDP since the Brexit referendum result and the importance of the Commission’s proposal of new funding to the development of EU member state defence capacities. The paper then reviews options, which have surfaced in the EU and UK respectively to define a new bilateral partnership. The challenges to involving a third-country in EU policy development and execution are examined and the urgent need for the Union and the UK to devise a new – necessarily weaker – relationship is underlined.

EU's development policy vis-à-vis Ukraine after the Euromaidan: securitisation, state-building and integration

ABSTRACTThis article focuses on key trends in EU development policy regarding post-Euromaidan Ukraine against the background of the EU's commitment to the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The trends considered include comprehensiveness of the policy response, stronger coordination and coherence, security-development nexus, and policy securitisation, as well as values in development policy. This article touches upon the interplay of the EU's foreign, security, and development policies in the Eastern Neighbourhood; the role of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) in the implementation of SDGs; and the role of development policy in the EU's Integrated Approach to External Conflicts and Crises.

Constitutionalization and Entrepreneurship: Explaining Increased EU Steering of Renewables Support Schemes

This article sheds light on two under-researched issue areas: the energy policy-shaping role of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and how constitutionalization of EU state aid law gives the European Commission (Commission) increased leverage over EU policy development. EU state aid governance is embedded in the Treaty of the Functioning of the EU’s prohibition of state aid. The CJEU and the Commissions’ Directorate-General for Competition (DG Comp) have played important roles in the emergence of stronger EU steering of renewable energy support schemes after 2014. For many years, powerful member states, most notably Germany, stopped the adoption of EU rules requiring more market streamlining and European harmonization of renewables support. This primarily played out in regular EU decision-making (co-decision) related to adoption and revision of the Renewable Energy Directive. A radical shift occurred in 2014 when the Commission introduced new guidelines on state aid for environmental protection and energy, giving the Commission increased authority over development of renewables support schemes across Europe. These guidelines called for renewables investments to become more exposed to energy market pricing and introduced auctioning as the main allocation mechanism. Support schemes for renewable energy were included for the first time in the EU state aid guidelines for environmental protection in 2001. Back then, member states had ample leeway to design support schemes as they pleased. The 2014 version of the guidelines includes far more detailed requirements. While the first CJEU ruling on renewables state aid hindered the Commission to intervene, new CJEU rulings after 2008 enabled the Commission to draft more restrictive guidelines. This article concludes that constitutionalization, combined with the policy entrepreneurship of Commission officials, explains the shift in EU steering in 2014. This indicates that constitutionalization and Commission entrepreneurship should be assessed in conjunction. Constitutionalization may be particularly important in the state aid area due to the superior competence of the Commission.

The Planned Legal Regulation of The Eu’s Post-2020 Development Policy – or An Assassination Against the Countryside

Abstract The European Union is a representative and guardian of fundamental values that secure the guarantees of the democratic functioning of the Member States. One of the core values of the European Union and of democracy is the rule of law, which includes, inter alia, the compliance of any interference with the law and the primacy of higher laws. The basic question is whether these core values are binding on the EU legislator itself as well? In this context, further questions can be raised such as whether the territorial approach inherent in Article 174 of the Treaty, which is the basis of the European Union’s operation, to what extent it prevails in EU law? How the countryside, as a territorial unit deserving particular attention, does appear in legislation and in EU development policy? Does the legislator strive to enforce the fundamental goals set out in the Treaty – such as strengthening cohesion, mitigating territorial differences? The paper seeks to address these issues primarily on the basis of an assessment of the EU draft legislation for the post-2020 period.

EU Development Policy and the Promotion of the Financial Sector

This paper assesses the Aid policy of the European Union. It highlights how this EU Aid provision has been intertwined with the process of fictionalization in two main ways. Firstly, a non-negligible proportion of Aid flows are linked to the promotion of private sector, for-profit activities, which very often include the development of the financial sector in developing countries. Secondly, the provision of Aid itself has become closely linked to the financial sector through the process of “blending”, which effectively increases the Aid budget by means of leveraging. These two aspects highlight how even cooperation policies with developing nations cannot be considered immune to the process of fictionalization.

Development priorities of Ukrainian-Polish cross-border tourism market in conditions of intensification of European integration processes

The development of cross-border tourism markets can not be considered beyond the basic principles of EU development policy - smart, sustainable and inclusive growth. The approach to the development of tourism based solely on the use of cultural and natural resources is unpredictable in modern conditions. European experience proves that it is important to consider tourism not as a sphere in the shadow of the industrial sector, but as an integral part of the regional innovation system and an element of the development of the knowledge economy in the region. At the same time, smart-development of tourism is based not only on the active use of the newest information and communication technologies, but also on managerial innovations, production of innovative types of tourist services, application of technologies related to the use of robotics, innovative medical equipment, renewable energy, etc. The purpose of the article is to determine strategic priorities of the development of cross-border tourism market on the basis of smart-specialization, definition of directions of joint actions of Ukraine and the EU countries (both at the level of authorities and local self-government, and business sector) in the development and promotion of new tourist products, substantiation of directions of effective the use of endogenous tourist potential of a cross-border region in conditions of activation of European integration processes. On the basis of the study, main development directions of Ukrainian-Polish cross-border tourism market on the basis of smart-specialization are defined as following: creation of a digital platform for the Ukrainian-Polish cross-border tourism market, active promotional campaign for tourist products of Ukrainian-Polish cross-border tourism market, development of cycling tourism and creation of an inter-state bicycle route, expansion of market by increasing the number of tourists aged 55+ and creation of tourist products for this age group as well as development of sentimental (nostalgic) tourism.

Ocena roli usług ekosystemów miejskich w zrównoważonym rozwoju lokalnym

Ecosystem services are an important framework for linking ecological infrastructure to urban social infrastructure, which can benefit people and ecosystems. Designing, planning and managing of complex urban systems for health and wellbeing requires urban ecosystems that are both immune to systemic changes and managed sustainably. Literature review reveals that so far only several researchers have focused on urban ecosystem services (UES). The paper aims at assessing the importance of ecosystem services at the local level with an emphasis on urbanized areas. The basic conditions and barriers to the implementation of the concept of ecosystem services in the EU policy and local development have also been identified. The paper also presents solutions concerning the creation of integrated systems of providing such services by local governments and their monitoring.

Resistance to EU integration? Norm collision in the coordination of development aid

ABSTRACTThis article contributes to the contemporary foreign policy debate about how norms influence policymakers’ behaviour. Hypotheses of norm-driven action are frequently dismissed when norms are inconsistently followed. However, values may collide, which might provide an explanation for such apparent inconsistencies. Drawing on recent constructivist literature on the contestation of norms, I discuss why integration in EU development policy was resisted. I ask if resistance was due to the wish to maintain national control over policies or if the so-called like-minded countries’ resistance was due to a conflict of normative concerns regarding how to best achieve coordination. The study contributes by developing an empirically relevant hypothesis of norm collision which lends itself well for theoretical generalisation. In addition, the article provides new empirical knowledge about EU development policy by identifying the tension between securing country ownership and donor involvement as a crucial factor contributing to resistance to EU integration.

Neofunctionalism and EU external policy integration: the case of capacity building in support of security and development (CBSD)

ABSTRACT Under the umbrella of Capacity Building in Support of Security and Development (CBSD), the EU provides equipment and infrastructure to the armed forces of partner countries. The 2017 reform of the Instrument contributing to Stability and Peace (IcSP) to implement CBSD represents a remarkable integrative step at the interface of EU security and development policy. This article explains the IcSP reform through a neofunctionalist lens. It argues that the extension of the Commission’s competences in EU security affairs can be explained by the interaction of functional and cultivated spillover pressures. Functional discrepancies between the CSDP framework and EU development policy created strong pressures for further integrative steps. Moreover, the Commission exerted strong pressures for adopting its proposal for implementing CBSD through the IcSP by drawing on a combination of strategic coalition-building, bargaining tactics and community framing. The case illustrates neofunctionalism’s potential to explain external policy integration.

FINANCIAL INSTRUMENTS OF EU DEVELOPMENT AND REGIONAL POLICY FOR WESTERN BALKAN COUNTRIES

Instruments for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) are one of the most important instruments fo EU development and regional policy avaliable to the candidate countries for EU accession. Enlargement of EU can cause, what already can be seen, considerable problems. Especially when the level of economic development is lower in some new member states and candidate countries than in “ old “ EU member states. Amon these countries are also western Balkan countries which use IPA funds (IPA I and IPA II) to solve problems caused by lack of money on national, regional nad city level as well as for the citizens. The aim of this paperwork is to explain what the European Commission has done by analyzing experiences in the utilizing IPA I funds. In the paper work we try to explain the new conditions, beside indispensable Stabilisation and Association Agreement, for programming and absorbing IPA funds that should increase impacts of financial and technical support for achievement of reform goals, particulary emphasising EU 2020 Strategy for smart, suinstable and inclusive development.

How Brexit affects EU external action: The UK’s legacy in European international cooperation

What exactly Brexit means for British engagement in European external affairs and development cooperation, is highly unclear, while its potential impact is considerable. After the general election in the UK on 8 June 2017, uncertainty regarding the direction, process and timing of the Brexit negotiations and the risk of a disorderly separation have risen further. The government position of a ‘hard Brexit’ seems no longer to be carved in stone. Yet, given the expected – total or partial – withdrawal of a major EU member state, like any area of EU politics, also European development policy faces a number of challenges: short-term problems regarding existing legal obligations, looming budget shortfalls and the securing of business continuity as well as the longer-term realignment of EU development policy following the departure of the United Kingdom. There is also the problem of the UK’s succession in international treaties and mixed agreements in which both the EU and the member states are partners, such as trade agreements and memberships of international organisations, global development financing and representation in multilateral forums or negotiations. By qualitative interpretative analysis, and tracing the leave-process, this article discusses possible scenarios and their consequences of Brexit for UK and EU cooperation with developing countries and their implications within the wider context of EU external action. The analysis builds on new-institutionalism and connects to theories of differentiated integration, framing Brexit as a phenomenon of regional dis-integration and contributing to the development of instruments for studying such phenomena. While, at this point of time, conclusions are speculative in nature, a strategic foresight would advise to protect development policy as far as possible from the trade-offs of the negotiation gamble and place common goals and values beyond dispute.

Justice in EU Cooperation and Development Policy

The concept of justice is essential in this context of human development as well as in the context of cooperation. It plays a central role in the context of ‘human rights, democracy’ and ‘good governance’ which form core foundations of EU development cooperation. This study clarifies the use of the concept in EU cooperation and development practice, and possible strategies for future policies. First, it determines the content and meaning of the notion of ‘justice’, taking into account justice theories and their application in the international context. Second, it examines how the concept is applied in both internal and external European policy, especially in the framework of development and/or to justice. Following these findings, the study examines ‘justice’ strategies in the context of multilateral relationships and in the context of European external programmes, as well as peace-building and transitional justice. It concludes with a set of targeted recommendations.

Brexit and UK International Development Policy

AbstractIn this article we explore the implications of Brexit for the UK and the EU's development policies and strategic directions, focusing on the former. While it is likely that the operational process of disentangling the UK from the various development institutions of the EU will be relatively straightforward, the choices that lie ahead about whether and how to cooperate thereafter are more complex. Aid and development policy touches on a wide range of interests—security, trade, climate change, migration, gender rights, and so on. We argue that Brexit will accelerate existing trends within UK development policy, notably towards the growing priority of private sector‐led economic growth strategies and blended finance tools. There are strong signals that UK aid will be cut, as successive secretaries of state appear unable to persuade a substantial section of the public and media that UK aid and development policy serves UK interests in a variety of ways.

China in Africa: What challenges for a reforming European Union development policy? Illustrations from country cases

During the past decade, the EU has introduced several reforms to make collective development policy more coherent and effective. At the same time, development exists alongside (and sometimes competes with) other policy fields, particularly in settings where the EU has strong economic interests. Reforms to EU external relations take place against a backdrop of rapidly intensifying economic and political relations between China and African countries, a debate often framed as increasing competition with the EU. This article argues that Chinese engagement in Africa poses challenges for the EU's development policy, but these differ considerably across African countries. We look at three country cases to show that China's increasing engagement with individual African countries does not cause EU collective action failures.

The EU, the United States and Partnership in Development Cooperation: Bridging the Gap?

ABSTRACTThis paper investigates the degree to which EU and United States development policies reflect partnership, meaning that aid is based on negotiations on an equal basis. It finds that, while the EU has traditionally been more focused on partnership than the United States, in recent years the gap is narrowing. The EU is increasingly providing aid based on a security rationale and has become reluctant to give budget support, while the United States is starting to work more with local actors. Changes in public support for aid, the EU’s growing role as a security provider and institutional changes can explain this trend.

Norm advocacy networks: Nordic and Like-Minded Countries in EU gender and development policy

This article investigates the informal networks of Member States that are claimed to be the drivers of EU gender and development policy. The aim is to highlight the negotiation strategies used in gender and development negotiations and to link these to network characteristics. I categorise the characteristics of the Nordic and the like-minded groupings, relying on network theory and investigate their modes of influence. The article is based on interviews with officials at the Permanent Representations and EU institutions in Brussels. My results demonstrate that the Nordics and the Like-Minded Countries constitute informal networks with frequent interaction. Network members share information and coordinate initiatives. The findings show a preference for gradual entrapment and framing rather than shaming and exclusion. The choice of strategies can be linked to network characteristics: the like-minded network is non-formalised and open, and as the ambition is to spread the norms of the like-minded also to reluctant actors, network participants prefer gradual entrapment and traditional diplomatic initiatives before confrontation. Norm promotion normally occurs in concentric circles negotiations, mirroring the layered structure of the network. This article contributes to the literature on informal governance in EU foreign policy by highlighting key strategies used in intra-EU policy networks.

Relational Capital in Fishing Communities: The Case of the “Stretto” Coast FLAG Area in Southern Italy

Given the importance of the role assigned to social relations and the exchange of information in the theory that subsumes the latest EU Development Policy planning for 2007-2013, this study analyses the “Stretto” Coast FLAG fishing community, in Southern Italy, from the perspective of the “relational capital” it possesses. The analysis aims at highlighting the quality and intensity of the relationships that exist among fisherfolk and that are of relevance for their professional activities. The study is conducted by integrating qualitative research with elements of quantitative Social Network Analysis. The hypothesis is that the relatively limited effectiveness of current local development initiatives might be partly due to too much isolation and limited information flow among the actors involved. If true, reducing isolation and increasing information flows might contribute to increase the effectiveness existing and future policies. In turn, this would increase the efficiency of use of the limited financial resources devoted to fishery development and, more generally, to the social and economic local development by empowering local actors in finding solutions to existing problems in an area that remains, from many points of view, still problematic.

Conclusions: Europeanisation, globalisation or (re)nationalisation? Revisiting development policy in the European Union

ABSTRACTThis Conclusion revisits the key ideas put forward in the Introduction, examines the evidence presented in the articles as a whole, and identifies some avenues for further exploration. It focuses on four areas: first, the extent of agency evident in EU development policies at the level of the EU itself; second, the mediating factors that can modify, reinforce or undermine EU policies at the national or the global level; third, the variable impact of the EU framework on policy, polity and politics at the national level; fourth, the extent and depth of the transformation brought about by EU development policies. It is suggested that processes of globalisation and (re)nationalisation are at least as important as EU development policies in shaping the pattern of development assistance in the EU, and that linkages between the three levels are likely to form a fertile basis for future research in this area.

Overview of key EU policy developments and their impact on demand for patient registry data

Overview of key EU policy developments and their impact on demand for patient registry data

A method of establishing a transect for biodiversity and ecosystem function monitoring across Europe

The establishment of the range of soil biodiversity found within European soils is needed to guide EU policy development regarding the protection of soil. Such a base-line should be collated from a wide-ranging sampling campaign to ensure that soil biodiversity from the majority of soil types, land-use or management systems, and European climatic (bio-geographical zones) were included. This paper reports the design and testing of a method to achieve the large scale sampling associated with the establishment of such a baseline, carried out within the remit of the EcoFINDERS project, and outlines points to consider when such a task is undertaken.Applying a GIS spatial selection process, a sampling campaign was undertaken by 13 EcoFINDERS partners across 11 countries providing data on the range of indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem functions including; micro and meso fauna biodiversity, extracellular enzyme activity, PLFA and community level physiological profiling (MicroResp™ and Biolog™). Physical, chemical and bio-geographical parameters of the 81 sites sampled were used to determine whether the model predicted a wide enough range of sites to allow assessment of the biodiversity indicators tested.Discrimination between the major bio-geographical zones of Atlantic and Continental was possible for all land-use types. Boreal and Alpine zones only allowed discrimination in the most common land-use type for that area e.g. forestry and grassland sites, respectively, while the Mediterranean zone did not have enough sites sampled to draw conclusions across all land-use types. The method used allowed the inclusion of a range of land-uses in both the model prediction stage and the final sites sampled. The establishment of the range of soil biodiversity across Europe is possible, though a larger targeted campaign is recommended. The techniques applied within the EcoFINDERS sampling would be applicable to a larger campaign.