Violent disputes and ethnic clashes have been a common phenomenon in plural societies over the years. Globally, these incidents of ethnic division have been manifested in power politics and control of resources, hence posing a major challenge to unity and social cohesion in these societies. In Kenya threats to ethnic diversity are predominantly ascribed to political instigation, land disputes, ethnic divisions, demonstrations, subsequent clashes, and riots, which are common occurrences during each political campaign season. Uasin Gishu County boasts of a diverse population comprising various ethnic groups has been an epicenter of ethnic conflicts in Kenya for many years. This study sought to put into perspective challenges of ethnic diversity in the county in the face horizontal inequalities which has been a major factor for ethnic tensions in Kenya. The study adopted Interpretivist philosophy. The study applied descriptive and historical research designs. The study found out that there were a myriad challenges towards ethnic diversity amid horizontal inequalities which included high levels of Politicization of ethnicity, Corruption and Impunity of Public Officers, misuse of various media and technology platforms, Institutionalized discrimination, historical injustices and marginalization. The study concluded that there was a combination of factors that made it challenging to manage horizontal inequalities and ethnic conflicts in Uasin Gishu County. These factors created ethno-political competition among major ethnic groups in the county, thereby leading to an environment in which ethnic animosity thrived over national identity and Unity hence incessant ethnic tension and violence in the county. The study recommended a multi-pronged stakeholder approach to address the challenge of horizontal inequalities.

Abstract We assess the degree of persistence for 36 U.S. states’ hate crime rates using fractional integration. For 9 states the hate crime rate exhibits mean reversion. The hate crime rate tends to an upward trend for 5 states (possibly reflecting increased hate crime reporting/compliance through time) and for 3 states there is evidence that the hate crime rate reverts to a downward trend. This is consistent with an evolving natural rate over the sample for these 8 states. For 17 states law enforcement expenditures aimed at deterrence will at best lower offending in the short run because the hate crime will return to its constant or evolving natural rate in the long run. Corrective policies designed to change the natural rate are recommended for these states. The results for the District of Columbia and Utah are ambiguous, and for the remaining 17 states there is no reversion to a natural hate crime rate.

This paper analyzes the inconsistent legal responses within the EU and international systems to hate crimes against Muslims, especially incidents involving desecration or insults toward the Holy Quran. It highlights the growing tension between freedom of religion, freedom of expression, and protections against hate speech—three rights often treated separately rather than in an interconnected manner. Due to the absence of harmonized legal standards, significant protection gaps persist, disproportionately affecting Muslim communities. By comparing national laws, EU instruments, ECtHR case law, and UN standards, the paper identifies approaches for better balancing these rights. It ultimately calls for clearer and more coherent legal frameworks that safeguard both the dignity of religious minorities and fundamental freedoms.

Migration processes in Kyrgyzstan during the period 2015-2025 have had a significant impact on the religious landscape, reinforcing both traditional practices and the risks of radicalization. The author of the article analyzes key aspects, including the growth of Islamization among migrants in Russia, return migration accompanied by increased religiosity (including Salafi influences), demographic shifts in the ethno-religious composition, and state restrictions on freedom of religion. Based on data from the IOM, the World Bank, USCIRF reports, and national statistics, several trends are identified: the return of migrants in 2020–2021 contributed to the expansion of informal religious groups; by 2025, new legislation on religion (entering into force in January) criminalized unauthorized religious practices, affecting returnee migrants. Regional disparities are most evident in the southern regions (Osh and Jalal-Abad), where migration intensifies ethnic and religious tensions. The article recommends measures aimed at the integration of returnees and the monitoring of radicalization in order to preserve the secular character of the state.

The main aim of the study is to identify the training needs of juvenile justice professionals working with Muslim minors and young people. The Italian juvenile justice system faces numerous challenges in protecting the well-being of young people of Islamic faith under its care. These individuals, often subjected to psychological violence due to the double stigma of being both immigrants and Muslims, may experience low levels of well-being. Combined with the psychological stress of arrest and detention, this can increase their vulnerability. In the absence of adequate protective factors, these conditions may facilitate a path toward criminal careers, from which disengagement is particularly difficult. An online questionnaire was administered to 74 helping professionals (50% response rate) operating in custodial and non-custodial facilities of the Juvenile Justice Center of Sicily Region (Italy), who work with young people and young adults of Islamic faith. Nearly half of operators (45.9%) self-reported poor or sufficient multicultural competences. The most critical training needs identified were intercultural communication (73%), psychological support (68%) and intercultural approaches (68%). Language barriers and ethnic prejudice emerged as the primary challenges for young Muslims (76% each), followed by cultural identity issues (57%). Operators reported limited access to cultural mediators (mentioned by 75.5% as a barrier) and insufficient collaboration with local Islamic associations. Only 20.3% of respondents indicated adequate institutional provisions for religious practices (halal food, prayer spaces and spiritual care). The study's findings were not nationally representative. Juvenile justice in Italy varies significantly between regions due to differences in available resources and the specific characteristics of migration flows. However, Sicily hosts four of Italy's 17 juvenile detention facilities and serves as a primary entry point for migration flows from Africa. Furthermore, while sharing fundamental principles with other European countries, the Italian system has distinctive features that make international comparisons challenging. Based on the findings, the Universities of Padua, Verona, Bari and Palermo, together with the Department of Juvenile and Community Justice, signed a letter of intent in February 2025 to define collaboration modalities and initiate an operational agreement. Such initiatives can serve as protective factors for young Muslims' well-being, fostering individualized interventions and integrated support. This contribution provides a snapshot of the training needs of practitioners working with Muslim young people. At present, there are no other similar studies in Italy; in fact, it has also been authorized by the Department of Juvenile and Community Justice, which is headquartered in Rome (Italy).

Personal experiences, even when recounted as autobiographical novels, can deepen our understanding of the past, as they present a lived history of real events. In the novel De două mii de ani (For Two Thousand Years), Iosef Mendel Hechter, using the literary pseudonym Mihail Sebastian, recounts his experience as a young Jewish intellectual, born and raised in Romania, in a society divided by ethnic tensions driven by ultra-nationalism and anti-Semitism. Our study aims to critically examine, through a historical perspective, the socio-political realities depicted by the author, the collective mentality, and the typological stereotypes of his fictional characters. These reflect the actual choices and paths taken by Romanian Jews in their responses to the anti-Semitic pressures of the era. We believe that adopting this less frequently explored perspective will enrich both our understanding of that period and the depth of the novel itself. Thus, autobiographical literature and history engage in a meaningful dialogue, where microhistory, represented by the individual experience of the main character, Ștefan Valeriu, can verify or refine macrohistory, particularly the social, political, and economic context in which interwar Romanian society developed.

ObjectivesUnacceptable experiences (UEs) during undergraduate studies and the associated emotional and academic impact have not been rigorously evaluated in the Canadian context. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of UEs and examine their associations with mental health and academic outcomes in a diverse sample of Canadian undergraduate students.MethodsUndergraduates attending Queen's University completed the U-Flourish Student Well-Being Survey at the beginning and end of each academic year from 2021/2022 to 2023/2024. Validated self-report measures included the GAD-7 (anxiety), PHQ-9 (depression), C-SSRS (suicidal thoughts and behaviours) and WEMWBS-7 (well-being). UEs reported over the academic year included: discrimination, sexual violence/harassment, bullying, hate crimes and physical assault. Multivariable regression analyses examined associations between UEs and student mental health outcomes and cumulative grade-point average (GPA) abstracted from the university database.ResultsNearly one-third (28.9%; range = 27.0-30.1% across years) of students (n = 2,948) reported experiencing at least one UE over the academic year. Discrimination (14.6%) and sexual violence/harassment (14.4%) was reported most frequently, followed by bullying/harassment (10.6%), hate crimes (5.0%) and physical assault (3.2%). UEs were highest in students who identified as non-binary gender (51.6%), 2SLGBTQIA + (39.9%) and as having a lifetime mental illness (41.2%). Each UE increased the risk of screening positive for anxiety and depression over the academic year by 10-19% and 14-40%, respectively. Students reporting UEs were also more likely (13-72%) to report having suicidal thoughts and/or behaviours over the academic year, particularly those reporting sexual violence (RR:1.72; 95% CI:1.45-2.05). Sexual violence, bullying, and hate crimes were associated with lower average cumulative GPA in first year.ConclusionUEs were commonly reported by undergraduate students, especially in minoritised subgroups, and associated with mental health concerns and academic difficulties. These findings highlight the need for further research to inform universal and targeted prevention and early intervention initiatives.

ABSTRACT Hate crimes, characterized by their severity and the harm inflicted on marginalized groups, require specialized intervention within the prison system. This study examines the psychosocial characteristics of 33 offenders (extreme right-wing, extreme left-wing, Latino gangs, or non-affiliated) using self-report questionnaires. Findings reveal significant social, criminological, and psychological differences, highlighting the complexity of perpetrator profiles. Consequently, prison administrations should tailor treatment programs to address the distinct characteristics of offenders and their specific group affiliations. This approach aims to effectively target criminogenic needs and contribute to the prevention of recidivism, ensuring more effective rehabilitation within correctional settings.

This study aims to describe and analyze the transformation process from maritime empires to nation-states in Southeast Asia, as well as the factors that drove it and its impact on regional societies. The study uses a literature study method by collecting and analyzing data from various relevant primary and secondary sources. The results show that Southeast Asia has a long history of maritime empires such as Srivijaya, Majapahit, and Malacca, which became centers of trade, the spread of religion, and the formation of early social structures. The transformation to nation-states was influenced by the influx of European influence, the growth of nationalism, and changes in economic structures. The transformation process included changes in the formation of national borders, government systems, the development of state institutions, as well as changes in social structures, the spread of education, and shifts in cultural values. The impacts of the transformation included increased state sovereignty, economic development, and improvements in the quality of life for the people, but also brought challenges such as ethnic tensions, corruption, and socioeconomic inequality. This study concludes that the transformation process is a complex journey that shapes the characteristics of modern nation-states in Southeast Asia today.

This study examines motivations for participating in the understudied Indonesian riots of May 1998 targeting the ethnic Chinese minority, using an integrative framework addressing intergroup, intragroup and individual factors. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 31 participants (26 male, 5 female), all aged over 35 and involved in violent acts during the riots, in which thousands of homes and businesses were looted or destroyed, and hundreds of people were raped or murdered. Thematic analysis revealed motivations at three levels: intergroup (ethnic prejudice, animosity towards security forces), intragroup (conformity, fear of missing out) and individual (thrill-seeking, need for significance, greed, impulsivity). Narratives illustrate how these factors interact within a context of socio-political and economic upheaval. Most participants cited motivations at the intragroup and individual levels, with fewer referencing intergroup factors or reporting a single level of motivation. Conformity (an intragroup factor) was reported by all participants. This research highlights the complex interplay of psychological and social dynamics driving collective ethnic violence.

This article explores hate crime targeting three specific religious groups in the United Kingdom: Muslims, Jews and Hindus. Drawing on qualitative interviews with victims, the research considers both hate crimes and noncriminal incidents such as bias and discrimination. The central aim is to examine how individuals from these groups perceive and respond to their experiences of victimization. The article presents data from interviews with 30 participants and three focus groups, focusing particularly on the participants’ immediate reactions to incidents of hate crime. The research identifies both similarities and differences in how each group responded at the time of the incident. Participants described their immediate reactions in one of four ways: inaction (outwardly not reacting), seeking some form of recourse, verbally confronting the perpetrator or retaliating with violence. Notably, none of the Jewish or Hindu participants reported responding with verbal confrontation, retaliation or physical aggression; their typical response was inaction. In contrast, Muslim participants exhibited a broader range of immediate responses, including verbal confrontation, physical retaliation and seeking recourse. This article is the first to offer insight into the varied immediate responses to hate crime among these religious communities in the United Kingdom.

ABSTRACT This research paper examines safety perceptions among Jewish minorities at European places of worship (PoWs) between October 2023 and April 2024. The study utilizes PROTONE survey data from Belgium (N = 571), Germany (N = 734), Spain (N = 1198), and Italy (N = 895), specifically comparing 79 Jewish and 3,318 non-Jewish respondents. Qualitative components include 43 interviews with faith leaders (including 16 Rabbis) and five focus groups conducted in Brussels, Berlin, Rome, and Madrid. Grounded in postsecularism, vulnerability assessment models, and securitization theories, the research explores how threats and security measures shape feelings of insecurity. Key findings indicate that violent attacks and property damage strongly predict perceived unsafety. Comparative analysis reveals that Jewish respondents perceive significantly higher levels of anti-Semitic hostility and hate crimes than non-Jewish groups perceive regarding their own communities. While positive community and authority relations marginally mitigate fear, structural vulnerabilities like outdated infrastructure persist. Attitudes toward security vary; CCTV is universally accepted, but armed guards raise concerns about carization. Generational differences appear, with younger Jewish individuals reporting notably higher anxiety and avoidance behaviors. The study contextualizes these findings within broader socio-cultural and political processes, highlighting the dual role of Jewish PoWs as essential and sacred sites for spiritual fulfillment and robust local communal resilience.

Community Integrated Care delivers 8 million hours of care and support for people with learning disabilities, autism, mental health concerns, and age-related needs across the United Kingdom. It has formed a unique ‘Social Care Partner’ (SDG17) model with leading sports, including Rugby League and British Cycling, and major tournaments, to create radical physical-activity and support solutions that address health, social, and economic inequalities in care (SDG1, 4, 8, 10). The charity fights inequalities faced by people with complex needs – including a 20+ year gap in life-expectancy for people who have learning disabilities, a 96% unemployment rate, face rising disability hate crime and a disabling society. The charity’s specialist Sports Inclusion function applies its specialist infrastructure and experience to empower major sports and tournaments to address these inequalities. Through co-production with the sports and the excluded community, mapping assets and aligning missions, they have delivered transformational solutions, including: • Variants of major sports for people with learning disabilities: These twin physical activity with specialist personal development and support. Their learning disability variant of rugby league’s ‘Super League’ is assessed by Manchester Met Uni as generating 1.39 m EUR of social value annually through transforming physical activity levels whilst empowering mental health, skill, and inclusion. • Developing social enterprise models and its Inclusive Volunteering Model with events such as UEFA Euro 2022 and World Para Swimming Championships. These support people facing profound health, social, and economic exclusion to become active, learn, and create a pathway to work. This has radically transformed health, life skills, and opportunities (Prof Sam Hook, Substance, 2023: 97% report greater skills and confidence). The partnership model is an unprecedented methodology, leveraging the strengths of both sectors to create sustainable, impactful interventions that transform health. The United Kingdom government’s Skills for Care agency named it as the “Best New Model of Integrated Care”. This approach is inherently sustainable and scalable across borders. The combination of sport and social care drives the commercial and strategic goals of sports and tournaments (awareness, reach, and impact), whilst also relieving financial pressures on stretched care systems through leveraging community assets and taking preventative health approaches.

An intrinsic part of hate crime perpetration is to be motivated in part or whole based on biases against another due to their identity. Yet, less is known about how hate crime impacts people who occupy multiple marginalized identities. This analysis moves our understanding forward by employing network analysis to capture how hate crimes and bias-motivated experiences cluster among different victim demographics. We focus here on Latino/a populations in the United States, which are at increased risk for hate crime victimization. Using a sample of Latino/a adults across three U.S. communities (n = 910), we assess the links between bias-motivated experiences based on multiple key demographic intersections. Results demonstrate that gender, immigrant status, and economic status distinctly impact how bias-motivated experiences cluster and relate, particularly when examined together. Findings suggest that it is imperative to look at people's victimization experiences holistically, especially when they hold multiple identities that fundamentally change their experiences with bias-motivated harm. These findings have implications for practitioners, particularly those in the criminal justice system, who seek to better identify and respond to victims of hate crime.

After serving as the 19th Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights at the U.S. Department of Justice (2021–2025), Kristen Clarke has returned to the world of academia. Her federal work involved leading the prosecution in high profile cases, expanding enforcement of federal hate crimes law, confronting modern day redlining by banks and addressing police misconduct.

This research note introduces the Bias Homicide Database (BHDB), a relational, open-source dataset with information on bias murders committed in the United States since 1990. We first describe the limitations of official bias crime data and how the BHDB overcomes obstacles to empirically studying one type of bias crime—bias murder. Second, the multi-step process for open-source data collection is described in detail along with potential issues of reliability and selectivity. Finally, and third, we provide some descriptive results to demonstrate the contributions of the BHDB and how researchers may use the dataset moving forward.

This article analyses structural inequalities and policy responses to discrimination in Spain through a critical documentary analysis of the Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) country reports (2014–2022). Discrimination disproportionately affects racialised and minority groups, impacting economic mobility, social cohesion, and mental health. While Spain has implemented measures to address these challenges, enforcement remains a critical issue. This study follows FRA's methodology, drawing on national surveys, legal frameworks, reports from public and civil organisations, and digital regulations to assess Spain's progress and limitations. Privileged access to FRA's unpublished reports – as FRANET contractors for Spain during the period under analysis – adds significant depth to the study. Findings highlight Spain's policy advancements in alignment with EU directives but reveal persistent hate crimes, xenophobia, Islamophobia, and digital discrimination. Gaps in data collection and policy implementation hinder effective responses. The study calls for a comprehensive migrant integration strategy, improved monitoring mechanisms, and stronger digital regulations to combat online hate speech, positioning Spain as a potential model for addressing systemic discrimination in Europe.

This article reassesses claims that the Incel movement constitutes a form of terrorism by examining its ideology, patterns of violence, and empirical case data. Drawing on an original dataset of US federal Incel-related cases from 2020–2023, alongside comparative analysis of prominent attacks, the study finds that Incel-linked violence lacks the strategic intent, coherent ideology, and communicative political purpose central to terrorism. Instead, such violence aligns more closely with grievance-driven, misogynistic hate crime and non-ideological mass killing frameworks. The findings caution against conceptual inflation and argue for preserving analytic distinctions between terrorism and other forms of extremist or idiosyncratic violence.

ABSTRACT This study presents a scoping review of the academic literature on hate crimes in Europe over the past decade. From an initial pool of 2536 studies, 76 met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in depth. The review identifies consistent empirical findings on how broader structural and contextual dynamics – such as terrorist attacks, the refugee crisis, and the COVID-19 pandemic – have contributed to increases in hate crimes across European societies. It also confirms widespread agreement on the consequences of hate crimes, including psychological harm, social isolation, and diminished trust in institutions. These findings highlight the need for psychosocial support, more accessible reporting mechanisms, and inclusive victim support services. However, the review also reveals critical gaps in the literature. First, research remains heavily focused on ethnicity- and religion-based hate crimes, often neglecting other affected groups such as LGBT individuals and people with disabilities. An intersectional perspective is needed to capture the full scope of hate crime victimization. Second, the scarcity of cross-national and longitudinal studies limits comparability and generalizability across European contexts. Addressing these challenges requires more inclusive research designs, improved data collection systems, and stronger coordination and knowledge exchange at the European level

Abstract Hate crime legislation was introduced in Ireland for the first time in 2024 through the Criminal Justice (Hate Offences) Act 2024. The Irish legislation draws heavily on the Scottish Hate Crime and Public Order (Scotland) Act 2021 and uses both the ‘motivation test’ and ‘demonstration test’ for establishing liability. We explore how the demonstration test might be interpreted in Ireland given the absence of a stated mens rea in the legislation to accompany the actus reus of demonstrating hatred. We explore whether a mens rea is necessary in the operative part of legislation through the lens of recent Irish case law on the issue, examine analagous case law from Britain, and ask whether the 2024 Act can withstand judicial scrutiny.