Background: Photo anthropometry is a scientific method that involves using photographs to analyze the proportions of various body parts and to obtain measurements, which can vary significantly across different racial groups. This study aimed to explore photo-anthropometric variations by evaluating the nasofrontal and nasal tip angles of the external nose in Bengali and Manipuri adult males residing in Bangladesh. Materials and methods: This cross-sectional analytical study was carried out in the Department of Anatomy at Sylhet MAG Osmani Medical College, Sylhet, between January 2022 and December 2022. Fifty (50) Bengali and fifty (50) Manipuri adult males, aged 25 to 59 years, were chosen through convenient sampling. Photoanthropometric methods were used to collect data from the Sylhet region. The results were presented as mean ± standard deviation, and the two-sample mean "Z" test was employed to compare findings between the groups. Results: The angular measurements of the external nose, the nasofrontal and nasal tip angles, were significantly higher in Manipuri adult males compared to Bengali adult males (p£0.05). Conclusion: The findings of this study will be valuable in the fields of Anatomy, Plastic Surgery, Forensic Medicine, Genetics, and Anthropology for purposes such as identification, planning corrective surgical procedures, and designing nasal models for different ethnic groups. Journal of Brahmanbaria Med. Coll. Volume 07 Issue 02 July 2025 ; 3-7

In 1999, the prevalence of female genital mutilation (FGM) was 5% in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). This study aims to assess FGM prevalence and types, describe its demographic and sociocultural characteristics, and evaluate its long-term impact on pelvic floor and sexual function. A cross-sectional study was conducted from 2021 to 2023 among 519 adult women living in six provinces of the DRC, selected to represent the country's ethnolinguistic diversity. Pregnant women, those within 6 months of childbirth, survivors of sexual violence, and those with war mutilations were excluded. A questionnaire was designed to collect data, supplemented by a vulvar assessment. The variables were compared using appropriate statistical tests (p < 0.05). The prevalence of FGM was 15.2% (95% CI: 12.2%-18.6%). The prevalence of FGM Types I-II and inner labia elongation (ILE) was 1.7% (95% CI: 0.8%-3.3%) and 13.5% (95% CI: 10.7%-16.7%), respectively. ILE was on average performed at the age of 13.8 years, mainly by women themselves (88.6%), while the circumstances of FGM I-II practice were unknown. ILE was practiced among the Swahili (65.7%) and the Baluba (27.1%), while FGM I-II were practiced among the Bangala (100%). Women with ILE were at higher risk of urinary incontinence (OR: 2.02; 95% CI: 1.17-3.45), dyspareunia (OR: 2.07; 95% CI: 1.08-3.99), and sexual satisfaction disorders (OR: 2.75; 95% CI: 1.34-5.52) than women without FGM. FGM is practiced in specific ethnic groups in the DRC, with ILE secondarily leading to long-term effects on pelvic floor and sexual function.

IntroductionDespite being the fastest-growing ethnic group in the United States, Asian Americans, encompassing all ethnic subgroups, remain notably underrepresented in Parkinson's Disease (PD) research and clinical trials. This qualitative study seeks to address this gap by exploring how Asian Americans experience PD diagnosis, treatment, care, and research participation.MethodsIn-depth interviews were conducted with ten Chinese and Vietnamese people with Parkinson's disease (PWP), nine family care partners, ten providers, and a focus group discussion was conducted with three community advocates in the Greater Boston area. Data were coded using a behavioral model that organizes health services utilization into three domains - predisposing, enabling, and need factors. Resulting themes were then mapped onto an access-to-care framework that conceptualizes access as influenced by both health system characteristics and individuals' abilities to seek, reach, afford, and engage in care.ResultsWe identified individual- and systems-level barriers that present before and after the initial establishment of care, and additional barriers that inhibit research participation among Chinese and Vietnamese PWP. Barriers to delayed diagnosis and reduced quality of care included linguistic and physical inaccessibility to healthcare services, limited health literacy about PD symptoms, cultural beliefs, dissatisfaction with care, shame, and stigma. Outreach from researchers who share a similar ethnicity as PWP may help enhance research participation.ConclusionsOur findings help fill important research gaps regarding the diagnosis and treatment of Asian American PWP. Recommendations for improvements include the need for linguistically- and culturally-tailored health education, outreach, and services to better support Asian American PWP.

The extent to which protocol eligibility criteria contribute to the underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minority populations — including Black, Asian, and Latino Americans — in lung cancer clinical trials remains poorly characterized. This study quantifies the likelihood of clinical trial exclusion attributable to comorbid conditions across racial and ethnic groups among patients with lung cancer. Data were drawn from 1,134 lung cancer clinical trials registered on ClinicalTrials.gov with start dates between January 2014 and December 2024, and patient comorbidity data were obtained from electronic medical records (EMR) at a large urban academic medical center in the Northeast United States. Data analysis was conducted between February and May 2025. Eligibility for trial enrollment was assessed by mapping patient comorbidity profiles against study exclusion criteria; binary logistic regression was used to estimate the likelihood of exclusion by race and ethnicity, with sex and median household income included as covariates. The analytic sample comprised 4,096 patients with lung cancer (73.6% White, 12.8% Asian or Pacific Islander, 3.3% Black or African American, and 1.8% Hispanic/Latino). Compared to White American patients, Asian American and Pacific Islander (AAPI) patients and Black or African American patients were 1.8 times (OR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.03–3.03) and 1.6 times (OR: 1.6, 95% CI: 1.01–2.48) more likely to be excluded from clinical trials based on their comorbidities, respectively. These findings indicate that standard protocol exclusion criteria may disproportionately screen out racial and ethnic minority patients, particularly Black/African American and AAPI individuals, and may represent a structural contributor to their underrepresentation in lung cancer research. Revising eligibility criteria to better reflect real-world comorbidity burdens could improve the inclusivity and generalizability of lung cancer clinical trials.

There currently exists limited research adopting a qualitative approach to investigate the practice of history teaching in Bosnia and Herzegovina across all three educational programs (i.e. Croatian, Serbian, and Bosniak). The aims of this study are twofold: (1) to identify common perspectives across groups, and (2) to compare pattern-based differences between groups concerning the challenges associated with history teaching in all three ethnic groups. The theoretical framework is grounded in Social Identity Theory, which explores how social categorization leads to the formation of ingroups and outgroups, stereotyping, and broader societal division. The data consist of 21 individual interviews with high school history teachers. The analysis reveals three main themes: (1) common issues and perspectives across groups, (2) differences between groups, and (3) intrapersonal inconsistencies and contradictions. The overall pattern emerging from the interviews portrays teachers as professionally competent individuals who are aware of the challenges concerning the transmission and interpretation of history but are not contributing to their escalation. The teachers in the study also exhibit resignation, acceptance of the current ethnically based education, limited critical reflection, and minimal pedagogical risk-taking. The results are discussed in the context of the choice between ethnic democracy and a shared cooperative future.

Purpose This study examines public trust in traditional and religious leaders in Ghana, focusing on the influence of perceived corruption, engagement, responsiveness, and effective management of natural resources. Design/methodology/approach Employing data from the 9th Round of Afrobarometer surveys conducted in 2022, the study utilizes descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression analysis to investigate the factors that predict public trust in these non-state actors. Findings The findings reveal that perceived corruption does not significantly reduce trust in traditional and religious leaders, challenging simplistic assumptions about the relationship between corruption and institutional legitimacy. However, regular engagement, responsiveness to citizens' concerns, and the perception that natural resource extraction benefits the community are positively associated with increased trust. The study also highlights the importance of sociodemographic factors, with higher education levels and certain regions showing lower trust, while affiliation with the ruling party, general social trust, and feeling close to one's ethnic group are associated with higher trust. These results contribute to the understanding of the complex dynamics of trust in traditional and religious leadership in Ghana, offering insights for policymakers, leaders, and civil society organizations working on governance and social cohesion. Originality/value This study offers several original contributions to the understanding of public trust in traditional and religious leaders in Ghana: first, it provides a comprehensive quantitative analysis of factors influencing trust in traditional and religious leaders, addressing a gap in existing literature which has largely focused on qualitative or historical accounts. Second, the use of recent Afrobarometer data and robust statistical analysis adds to the empirical foundation of research in this area. Overall, this study advances our understanding of the complex and evolving role of traditional and religious leaders in modern Ghanaian society, challenging some existing assumptions while providing new insights into the factors that shape public trust in these important figures.

Broadly stated, diversity has a double-edged effect on development, both hindering and facilitating. It hinders development due to problems of plurality, such as incompatibility of interests and policy disagreements. On the other hand, diverse views, values, and problem-solving methods can foster creativity and innovation. An inclusive institution that values diversity and transforms differences into an asset, and one that contributes to mutual thriving, is crucial for multiethnic settings. A system based on shared identity and complementarities can be instrumental for this purpose. The mounting ethnic hostilities among six ethnic groups in the Konso-Derashe-Alle area, caused mainly by resource and administrative issues, worsen an already poor socio-economic condition of the people in the area. Despite the growing enmity, the groups share vast sociocultural and economic values and complementarities on which a cooperative system can be built. While the shared identities include shared myth of origin, inter-ethnic clan identification, and transethnic common norms of governance among others, the complementarities include common local markets, specialization-based economic transactions, and common resource niches. Given these, the study concludes that the groups in the study area are tied through shared values, common fate, and economic interdependence. To this end, the study recommends a shared society system, an inclusive system that fosters shared and complementary spaces for the groups’ mutual economic thriving and interdependence.

African American women carry a disproportionate burden of cardiometabolic disease (CMD) risk and experience higher rates of sleep disturbances compared to other racial and ethnic groups. Sleep and the sleep-regulating hormone melatonin play key roles in modulating inflammation, a biological pathway central to CMD. Chronic exposure to racism and discrimination may exacerbate stress, disrupt sleep and melatonin rhythms, and elevate inflammatory responses, further heightening CMD risk. The purpose of this pilot study is to evaluate the effects of a race-based stress reduction intervention-Resilience, Stress, and Ethnicity (RiSE)-on sleep quality and dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO) as primary outcomes, and to examine inflammation as a secondary outcome among older African American women with CMD risk. Leveraging an ongoing randomized controlled trial (RCT) (R01AG081251), this embedded pilot RCT will randomize 32 women to either the RiSE intervention or an attention control health education program, both delivered via eight weekly online sessions. Sleep quality will be assessed using validated questionnaires and wrist-worn ActiGraph devices for seven nights. DLMO will be determined from seven salivary samples collected around habitual bedtime, and salivary cytokines will be measured for inflammation. All measures will be obtained pre- and post-intervention. This pilot study is the first to examine an integrative, race-based stress reduction intervention targeting sleep and melatonin rhythms in this population. Findings will inform future mechanistic studies and the development of nurse-led strategies to mitigate the adverse physiological consequences of discrimination-related stress on sleep and cardiometabolic health among African American women.

Return to work post stroke is affected by sociodemographic factors and disability. We explored ethnic differences in employment among White, Black African, Black Caribbean, and other ethnic minority groups at 1 and 5 years post first stroke in a population-based cohort. Data on individuals with first-ever stroke were obtained from the South London Stroke Register ([SLSR] patients registered between 1995 and 2025). Analysis was restricted to individuals in employment at the time of first stroke (N=1737, 67% men, mean age: 54 years [SD: 12.1]), with employment status assessed at 1 year and 5 years follow-up. Associations between ethnicity and employment status (employed, retired or other) were examined using multinomial logistic regression adjusting for a range of sociodemographic (age, sex, study period, socioeconomic deprivation) and clinical factors (eg, stroke severity and management, co-occurring health conditions, functional indicators) at baseline and follow-up. After adjusting for baseline factors (socioeconomic deprivation/stroke severity/health conditions), Black African (relative risk ratio [RRR] 0.47 [95% CI 0.29-0.75]) and Black Caribbean (RRR, 0.40, [0.22-0.75]) groups were significantly less likely to be employed at 1 year post stroke than White individuals. At 5 years, only Black African individuals were less likely to be employed (RRR, 0.59 [95% CI, 0.30-1.15]). Similar ethnic disparities were observed at 1 year and 5 years in relation to clinical factors assessed at follow-up. Black survivors of stroke were ~50% less likely to be employed 1 year after stroke compared with White survivors, with Black African disadvantage persisting at 5 years after stroke. These persistent disparities were not explained by sociodemographic, stroke severity, and functional/health indicators. More research is required to better understand what drives the ethnic disparities in poststroke return to work.

Kam Sweet Rice (KSR), a distinctive group of glutinous rice landraces, has evolved over millennia through agro-ecological adaptation by the Dong ethnic group in the 'He' cultivation zone of Southeast Guizhou, China. This study examined the genetic diversity of 388 glutinous rice landraces from the region, comprising 325 KSR and 63 non-KSR varieties, using Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) sequencing. Results revealed that non-KSR germplasm exhibited significantly higher genetic diversity than KSR germplasm. Collectively, diversity patterns were strongly shaped by the numerical predominance of genetically similar KSR germplasms, resulting in an uneven distribution of genetic diversity between KSR and non-KSR groups. Five strategies were applied to construct and evaluate core collections (see Methods for full details). Among them, the simulated annealing algorithm (SA)-based Allelic Richness Maximization Strategy (SANA) (20% sampling intensity) demonstrated superior performance in preserving genetic diversity, except for the number of alleles (Na) and observed heterozygosity (Ho), where the Modified Heuristic Sampling (M-HS) strategy (13.66% sampling intensity) performed better at lower sampling intensities. By optimizing both approaches, a core collection of 65 germplasms was established, capturing 90.86% of alleles and retaining key genetic parameters. This core set effectively represents the genetic diversity of the entire collection, providing a strong foundation for future germplasm innovation and utilization.

INTRODUCTIONIt remains unclear whether specific blood pressure components—systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), pulse pressure (PP), or mean arterial pressure (MAP)—are similarly associated with white matter hyperintensity (WMH) burden across sexes within racial and ethnic groups.METHODSParticipants were drawn from the Health and Aging Brain Study—Health Disparities (HABS‐HD) and included non‐Hispanic White (NHW; n = 1318), non‐Hispanic Black (NHB; n = 1009), and Hispanic (n = 1307) adults. Linear regression models examined associations between SBP, DBP, PP, and MAP with log‐transformed WMH volume normalized to intracranial volume. Analyses were stratified by race and ethnic group and included sex × blood pressure interaction terms. Models adjusted for age, education, neuroimaging scanner, diabetes, dyslipidemia, obesity, and tobacco use.RESULTSAmong NHW participants, higher SBP and PP were more strongly associated with greater WMH volume in females compared to males. Among NHB participants, blood pressure–WMH associations did not differ by sex. Among Hispanic participants, females exhibited greater WMH volume in DBP‐ and MAP‐adjusted models, although blood pressure–WMH associations were stronger in males.DISCUSSIONBlood pressure–WMH associations differ by sex within racial and ethnic groups. These findings highlight intersectional heterogeneity in cerebrovascular vulnerability and suggest that sex‐specific blood pressure–related pathways to small‐vessel injury vary across racial and ethnic contexts.HighlightsNon‐Hispanic White (NHW) females showed stronger systolic blood pressure (SBP)‐ and pulse pressure (PP)–white matter hyperintensity (WMH) associations than NHW males.Blood pressure (BP)–WMH associations did not differ by sex among non‐Hispanic Black participants.Among Hispanic adults, BP–WMH associations were stronger in males than females.Antihypertensive use was associated with higher WMHs across race and ethnic groups.BP‐related WMH vulnerability varies by sex and race and ethnic context.

ABSTRACT Recent reforms to China's college admission policies have increased access to higher education for ethnic minority students. However, these students frequently encounter distinct challenges stemming from their cultural backgrounds, language proficiency, and prior educational experiences. This study focuses on the achievement gap between ethnic minority and non‐minority students within the Chinese higher education system. By analysing data from 19,637 undergraduates across 37 universities, this study used the Chinese version of the College Student Experiences Questionnaire to examine the influence of college environment on student learning gains and to determine whether the mediating effects of academic and social activities varied across ethnic groups. The structural equation modelling results suggested that: (1) a positive association existed between college environment and learning gains for both ethnic minority and non‐minority students; (2) both academic and social activities partially mediated this relationship; and (3) the impact of social activities on learning gains was significantly less pronounced for ethnic minority students, thereby revealing a critical disparity. This study underscores the important role of college environment in fostering student learning and emphasises the necessity of tailored support mechanisms designed to address the unique challenges experienced by ethnic minority students.

ABSTRACT Despite considerable research on women in leadership, the interplay of race, ethnicity, and gender in academic leadership roles remains underexplored. Additionally, variations in mentoring, resiliency, and spirituality among different ethnic groups in academia have not been adequately addressed. This study aims to bridge these gaps by examining unique barriers faced by women of color in academia. Using a sample of 103 academic leaders occupying various leadership or faculty positions, our findings reveal the distinctive challenges for African American and Asian women in leadership roles, particularly concerning cultural sensitivity and discrimination. Also, African American women exhibit higher self-efficacy in leadership aspects such as delegation, goal management, and relationship management than their Asian counterparts. The study underscores the necessity for higher education institutions to not only address leadership diversity but also to implement tailored initiatives that acknowledge and support the distinct experiences of women of color, fostering an equitable academic leadership landscape.

This study investigates how some selected Nigerian Christian artiste use code switching and code mixing to connect with diverse audience and also showcase their ethnic identities. The theories adopted for the study are the social identity theory and the communication accommodation theory. Findings reveal that the blending of Indigenous languages with English in the selected gospel music serves as a tool for showcasing the ethnic group of the artistes as well as reaching wider audience. This result therefore emphasizes the role of language use in the Christian music industry in fostering cultural identity and its involvement in maintaining the heritage language of the people. The researcher therefore recommends the continuous incorporation of indigenous languages into Christian Gospel songs since it has demonstrated positive impacts on language maintenance, cultural visibility, and audience engagement. Future studies should investigate a larger corpus of gospel songs across more Nigerian languages to deepen understanding of multilingual practices and their sociolinguistic impacts.

Clopidogrel is a widely used antiplatelet prodrug to treat acute coronary syndromes. However, its clinical efficacy is hampered by ineffective bioactivation to produce the pharmacologically active metabolite (AM), leading to variability in the antiplatelet response among different ethnic groups. To overcome the shortcomings of clopidogrel, DT-678 was developed by conjugating AM to 3-nitropyridine-2-thiol via a mixed disulfide bond. It has been challenging to produce the conjugate in a high yield by chemical synthesis. Here, we report the first de novo biosynthesis of DT-678 using engineered CYP102A1 variants. We applied structure-based computational design using UniDesign to generate three variants (UD4, UD5, and UD6) that enhanced the catalytic activity and selectivity toward DT-678 synthesis. Among them, UD6 demonstrated the highest total turnover number and DT-678-specific productivity under the optimized conditions. Mechanistic analysis revealed that rapid enzyme inactivation, driven by reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, limited the overall yield. Remarkably, we found that ascorbic acid significantly protected CYP102A1 variants from inactivation and, hence, increased production yield. This work establishes a scalable enzymatic strategy for DT-678 biosynthesis and highlights the importance of combining protein engineering with redox control to overcome limitations in CYP-catalyzed reactions.

Traditional timber-framed buildings in Southwest China hold international recognition for their historical, cultural, artistic, and social value, yet their physical performance adequacy for modern living remains unexamined. Field tests on Miao dwellings in Jidao Village, Guizhou, characterized wall sound insulation and assessed contemporary suitability. Key results indicate: Newly "L-shaped" dwellings exhibited optimal wall insulation. Critical frequencies in modern walls aligned with experimental ranges, traditional walls showed lower experimental than theoretical values. Traditional exterior wall insulation increased with enclosure ("U-shaped" courtyard > "L-shaped" > "linear layout", Max≈2dB), while internal walls showed no significant differences. Enclosed layouts attenuated noise transmission, enhancing overall insulation. Traditional and newly "Linear-type" dwellings showed comparable performance, but new "L-shaped" dwellings with double-layer timber and embedded rock wool (30mm) outperformed others by 8-14dB. Exterior and bedroom walls critically influenced overall insulation, directly impacting daily life. Enhancing insulation while preserving ethnic features is essential.

Lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] is a lipoprotein similar to low-density lipoprotein (LDL), which binds to a characteristic component: apolipoprotein (a). The plasma Lp(a) level is mainly determined by genetic factors, with variations across ethnic groups. In adults, various epidemiological and genetic studies have shown that elevated Lp(a) levels are an independent risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and aortic valve stenosis, associated with inflammatory, atherogenic, and thrombotic mechanisms. Given that the distribution, variability, and prognostic value of this marker in the pediatric population have been less investigated, the objective of this review is to analyze the available evidence on the behavior of Lp(a) as a risk marker in children and adolescents, current recommendations for its measurement in pediatrics, and treatment prospects.

Medical treatment decisions are often based on estimated global risk scores. When heterogeneity in treatment effects exists, assigning treatment according to estimated individualized treatment rules (ITRs) instead has the potential to improve mean outcomes. This article aims to investigate racial and ethnic group differences in treatment rates when comparing antihypertensive medication recommendations from an estimated ITR with a risk score approach. Data were simulated to emulate observational data with underlying treatment effect heterogeneity in survival times. An ITR and risk score approach were compared to illustrate how the resulting recommendations may disagree. An ITR for prescribing antihypertensives was estimated from 3281 adults from MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis), an observational longitudinal cohort study, and compared with the risk-based approach recommended by cardiovascular care guidelines. Hypothetical treatment rates under each "rule" were computed. In the simulation study, the proportion of individuals treated optimally under each rule was calculated. Using MESA, a Chi-square test of independence was performed to determine whether treatment rates differed across racial and ethnic groups. Two benefits of ITRs were shown: they (1) maximize expected survival times and (2) may mitigate racial disparities when treatment effect heterogeneity is expected. Using MESA, the ITR recommended treatment to more participants than the risk score approach across all racial and ethnic groups. A Chi-square test suggested that treatment rates for different "rules" differed significantly across racial and ethnic groups (P<0.001). Treatment recommendations varied substantially when assigning treatment using an ITR versus a risk-based approach.

Older low-income U.S. veterans experience elevated physical and social vulnerabilities, yet their functional limitations remain understudied. This study estimated the prevalence of activity of daily living (ADL) and instrumental activity of daily living (IADL) limitations and identified associated sociodemographic, health, and psychosocial factors. We analyzed nationally representative data from the 2021 National Veteran Homeless and Other Poverty Experiences (NV-HOPE) Study of low-income veterans aged ≥ 55 years (N = 877; weighted ≈ 7.41 million). Survey-weighted logistic regression models identified factors associated with any ADL or IADL limitation across sociodemographic, health (chronic conditions, depression, anxiety, other mental diagnoses), and social/contextual domains (network size, perceived support, loneliness, housing). Exploratory margins analyses were used to descriptively examine potential differences across sex and race/ethnicity. Overall, 4.28% reported having at least 1 ADL limitation and 14.98% having at least 1 IADL limitation. ADL limitations were associated with higher anxiety (odds ratio [OR] = 1.32, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04-1.67), "other" race/ethnicity (OR = 3.98, 95% CI: 1.27-12.51), and some college education (OR = 3.43, 95% CI: 1.13-10.46), whereas home ownership was protective (OR = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.16-0.91). IADL limitations were associated with Black (OR = 2.41, 95% CI: 1.12-5.16) and "other" race/ethnicity (OR = 2.61, 95% CI: 1.13-6.05), more chronic conditions (OR = 1.24 per condition, 95% CI: 1.10-1.40), higher anxiety (OR = 1.27, 95% CI: 1.04-1.54), and other mental diagnoses (OR = 2.15, 95% CI: 1.13-4.09); a moderate social network (3-5) was protective (OR = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.16-0.85). Descriptive subgroup analyses indicated that associations between mental health and ADL limitation appeared stronger among women, whereas relationships between depression, anxiety, or loneliness and IADL limitation varied across racial and ethnic groups. Functional limitations among older low-income veterans are multifactorial, reflecting intersecting demographic, clinical, and social determinants. Findings support integrated care models that combine mental-health screening and social-resource supports. Exploratory subgroup patterns highlight the importance of considering sex and race/ethnicity in identifying low-income veterans most at risk for functional decline and in tailoring prevention and intervention efforts.

Abstract The present work examines whether the Holodomor, the famine imposed by the Stalinist regime in Ukraine in 1932–1933, can be interpreted as genocide in accordance with the provisions of international law. Although the Ukrainian people suffered widespread repression by the Soviet authorities, there is some doubt that the famine was planned or used by the central government with the purpose of destroying, at least partially, the Ukrainians as a national or ethnic group. This study highlights that, despite the fact that Holodomor fulfilled the objective criteria of the crime of genocide (actus reus), it does not fully meet the subjective criteria (mens rea) and is, thus, outside the scope of the application of international law for this crime. The main object of Stalinist repression was not the Ukrainians, but the peasantry as a social class, and hence the Holodomor can be placed within broader frameworks of mass repression and state violence that are often associated with crimes against humanity.