Eschatological Interpretation Research Articles

Проект «социальной теологии» в учении Вальтера Раушенбуша

The article examines the question of the possibility of transforming systematic theology in accordance with the main ideas of the "social gospel". This question was formulated in the last significant work of the eminent American theologian of the early twentieth century, Walter Rauschenbusch, Theology for the Social Gospel. The work was published in 1917, a year before the thinker's death. Walter Rauschenbusch was convinced that it was necessary to transform a number of provisions of Christian doctrine, taking into account some important discoveries that became apparent in the context of the social interpretation of Christianity. These "discoveries" seem new only from the standpoint of historical Christianity, which was seriously influenced by the mystical, metaphysical and ascetic tendencies of the Greco-Roman intellectual tradition alien to it. In reality, according to V. Raushenbush, these “discoveries” of the social gospel were part of the original content of the Christian gospel and are now again updated in the context of social interpretation. W. Rauschenbusch refers to such provisions of the social gospel, which should be introduced into systematic Christian theology, the following ideas: 1. A broader interpretation of the nature of evil (evil has not only an individual, but also a social nature). Evil is rooted not only in a person's freedom, but also in some social institutions that incline a person's will to a vicious life. 2. “Limiting the theological weight” of the doctrine of the original sin in order to educate Christians in active enthusiasm instead of passive contrition for the fall, the consequences of which no one can overcome. 3. Salvation has both a personal and a social dimension. The personal conversion of a Christian is necessarily linked to his social mission. Social responsibility should not be seen as a secondary consequence of acquiring personal faith. One is unthinkable without the other. By acquiring personal faith, a person also acquires social responsibility towards other people. 4. Democratic character of theology instead of despotic. Theology should be guided by the gospel understanding of God as a loving and merciful Father. 5. Social interpretation of eschatology. The posthumous existence of people in heaven and hell should not be regarded as a state of "eternal rest". It is necessary to admit the existence of active love in paradise, which will contribute to the correction of sinners and the perfection of the righteous. It is an eschatology of hope instead of an eschatology of punishment.

A Philosophical Expose Towards A ‘God After God’

The escalation of violent incidents in recent times has brought religions to the forefront of world politics, resulting in a shift from their traditional role as conduits of divine revelation to becoming instruments of power and dominance. This phenomenon of kratophany exemplifies the manifestation of violence within religious contexts. The occurrence of violence may be attributed to the foundation of eschatological interpretations within various theological frameworks. The emergence of religious triumphalism and fundamentalism stemming from these theological perspectives has posed a significant danger to both world peace and ecumenical dialogue. The need for peace among faiths has transitioned from being a mere choice to an urgent necessity in contemporary times. The deity that is sought to be understood via the lens of eschatology is a divine being that exists in the future, sometimes referred to as an "after God." Hence, in order to get this comprehension, it is imperative to relinquish any remnants of onto-theological thought that now plague the eschatological analysis of religions. The violent interpretations of eschatologies used by Abrahamic faiths result in a significant loss of significance. The present research aims to address the hermeneutic context that poses a threat of religious violence. This intervention might be likened to Abraham getting Isaac back after first renouncing the notion of a violent sacrifice. In the present day, it is imperative for the Abrahamic faiths to discontinue the practise of harsh sacrifice and instead embrace the concept of peace as a valuable offering.

Interpretation of Revelation 13 in the writings of Ellen White

The origin and development of the Adventist Church was based on eschatological interpretations of the apocalyptic books of the Bible. Ellen White, one of the co-founders of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, played a prominent role in the interpretation of prophetic texts. In this article, I highlight her interpretation of one of the most controversial passages in the book of Revelation – the thirteenth chapter – in which John writes about the Antichrist. I show that Ellen White took a historical approach to the interpretation of apocalyptic prophecies. White interpreted the beast from the sea as a symbol of the papacy, and the beast from the earth as a symbol of Protestant America. White argued that the image of the beast would be a separate authority, a union of church and state in the United States, a kind of counterpart to the papacy. The restoration of the power of the papacy and its alliance with Protestantism will lead to the loss of religious freedom and persecution. The article highlights that the mark of the beast, according to Ellen White, symbolizes the celebration of Sunday – a false and idolatrous Sabbath. This spiritual sign will be activated in a future eschatological spiritual battle that will take place in the matter of worship and faithfulness to God’s commandments. White wrote about Sunday laws in the historical context of the United States, where they were hotly debated and even passed in some states. I argue that White was not limited by historical context, but was making a statement about future Sunday observance legislation on a worldwide scale, with other countries following the US’s example. The article shows that Ellen White also interpreted the Antichrist individualistically, by indicating the personal appearance of the devil in the form of Jesus Christ at the end of time.

Biblical interpretation during the era of the COVID-19 pandemic: Perspectives from Africa

Biblical interpretation and/or hermeneutics is largely influenced by context and prevailing events and/or issues. This is attested by many scholars in the field. Previous pandemics have influenced the way biblical hermeneutics is conducted during the period. The situation is not too different from the emergence of COVID-19. The pandemic has been scripturalised to argue that it is the fulfilment of scriptural signs for the second coming of Jesus. Others assert that it is the result of human sins and 5G technology. Amid these propositions, biblical narratives concerning miracles/healing, eschatology, and hope were handled uniquely. This study employs narrative research criticism to analyse various propositions concerning COVID-19 and how biblical texts were engaged to propound an epideictic rhetorical theory of biblical interpretation during the emergence of COVID-19. The main finding is that although there are many assigned eschatological interpretations to the pandemic, there is an epideictic interpretation of miracle narratives of Jesus to minister healing to persons affected and infected by COVID-19.Contribution: This study emphasises the problem-solving approach to biblical interpretation in the African context. It proposes the application of this approach in response to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Imago Dei, Ontological and Relational Interpretations. Introducing Edith Stein to the Debate

The complex theological treatment of the person as imago Dei has focused on ontological, functional, relational or eschatological interpretations, which either belong or possibly belong to all human beings. It is however unusual to encounter a reflection on the person’s intrinsic uniqueness as imago Dei. For Edith Stein intrinsic or a priori individuality refers to a unique quality of the person’s soul which unfolds more or less fully in the unity of the person’s body-soul-spirit unity: «the soul is destined for eternal being, and this destination explains why the soul is called upon to be an image of God in a “wholly personal manner.”» (FEB 504 [422]) This ontological approach contributes to a consideration of interpersonal enrichment through love, as a way to personal fulfilment and to complementarity through communion. An ontological approach to personal individuality thus paradoxically leads to the discovery of the existential primacy of relationality.

Imago Dei, Ontological and Relational Interpretations. Introducing Edith Stein to the Debate

The complex theological treatment of the person as imago Dei has focused on ontological, functional, relational or eschatological interpretations, which either belong or possibly belong to all human beings. It is however unusual to encounter a reflection on the person’s intrinsic uniqueness as imago Dei. For Edith Stein intrinsic or a priori individuality refers to a unique quality of the person’s soul which unfolds more or less fully in the unity of the person’s body-soul-spirit unity: «the soul is destined for eternal being, and this destination explains why the soul is called upon to be an image of God in a “wholly personal manner.”» (FEB 504 [422]) This ontological approach contributes to a consideration of interpersonal enrichment through love, as a way to personal fulfilment and to complementarity through communion. An ontological approach to personal individuality thus paradoxically leads to the discovery of the existential primacy of relationality.

Historizität im biblischen Schulactus

Abstract Johann Klaj’s Engel⸗ und Drachen⸗Streit (1649) takes an intermediate position in his literary work between the depiction of war and peace poetry: in this ‘Schulactus’, a biblical subject is combined with the historical context of the recently ended Thirty Years War and used for an eschatological interpretation of war. At the same time, the ‘Schulactus’ performs a secular transfer of these interpretive patterns in the context of the peace ceremonies, which is due to the representative functions of his recitational practice, revealing the institutional as well as politico-religious integration of literature. Examining the text, paratext and the historical context of presentation, this contribution elaborates how knowledge is created, transmitted and represented as well as combined with a negotiation of power in discourses and practices of the early modern period.

Семиотика двойничества в современной эсхатологии

Traditionally, a double (or doppelgänger) is considered to be a personified part of one’s consciousness or subconsciousness, social experience, behavioural patterns, etc. represented as an independent actor of social relations (in a literary text, an independent character or a character claiming independence). Doubles are characters that have something in common. The study of the doubles phenomenon is often limited to artistic discourse, its religious interpretation, including in eschatological narratives, being poorly investigated. In the Christian tradition, the eschatological interpretation of doubles goes back to early Christian hermeneutics of the New Testament texts about false apostles and the Antichrist. This article analyses the mythology of doubles formed under the influence of modern eschatology. In terms of hermeneutics, modern versions of the theological mythologeme of doubles are attempts at an apocalyptic interpretation of information technology, while information models are assigned the role of demonic doppelgängers. Thus, a binary opposition is formed: the real world created by God vs the digital world of the Antichrist, functioning in a similar way to binary oppositions of mythological discourse. The content analysis of modern eschatological discourse identified the following key mythologemes of doubles in it: digital double-image, digital kingdom of the Antichrist, doubles of rulers and prominent personalities. The abovementioned mythologemes are analysed using the methods of semiotic and hermeneutic analysis. The sources of the study are original texts of the prophetic and pseudo-prophetic genres, popular among Orthodox subcultures, but found in the canon of the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) as well.

1618년 혜성에 대한 근대 초 독일인들의 인식 — 혜성의 상징적 의미에 대한 고찰 —

The comets that suddenly appeared and crossed the night sky were mysterious phenomena as well as natural incidents for the early modern Europeans. Aristotle’s meteorological theory that was closely connected with his dichotomous cosmology and had decisively affected the European perceptions of comets since the ancient era encountered a serious challenge in the sixteenth century. In 1577, the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe demonstrated through empirical-quantitative observation and calculation that the comets must be not sublunary meteorological phenomena, but superlunary celestial bodies, and therefore posed a serious problem for the paradigm of the invariability of the celestial sphere. A series of comets of 1618 that motivated many Protestant authors in Germany to write pamphlets on the theme were considered omens indicating imminent catastrophes like a devastating war. Although these comets were the first to be observed through a telescope in the history of astronomy, the new images of special celestial bodies acquired through modern observational instrument could not yet replace the old symbolism. One of the most interesting incidents regarding the symbolic implications of the comets of 1618 was the so-called ‘Ulmer comets debate’, which was inspired by the eschatological interpretation of Ulmer mathematician J. Faulhaber. His millenarian opinion was criticized by both intellectuals and ministers of the city who regarded the comets as sign of God’s punishments, which could be reversible through believers’ tears of repentance.

Seeing and Interpreting Visions of the Next Age in Interstellar

Christopher Nolan’s Interstellar (2014) uses multiple styles of cinematography – documentary, painterly and expressionistic – to guide interpretation of its apocalyptic review of history. Within the prologue and epilogue of the science fiction film, clips from interviews originally filmed for Ken Burns’s The Dust Bowl (2012) invite questions about how to interpret documentary, revisionist and eschatological reviews of history. Cinematography functions as a self-reflexive cue to spectators within and outside the mise-en-scène to engage in eschatological interpretation. The representation of spectatorship and vision reveals the challenge of interpreting prophetic visions of the last things and the next age, which are conventions of the apocalypse genre.

Reflection of Mongolian imperial ideas in the medieval Byzantium sources

The article uses materials of Byzantine historical works of the XIII-XIV centuries to further develop the author’s work in the sphere of Imperial ideology of the medieval Mongols. The special geopolitical position of Byzantium, as well as controversies among descendants of Genghis Khan, have caused peculiarities of its relations with the Mongol Empire, and later with the states of Juchids and Khulaguids, and allowed it to remain independent. Byzantine historians described the Mongols from the position of external observers, so their information is relatively scarce, but important for understanding the goals of the Mongol conquerors in the region and their views on the world order. Analysis of information provided by George Pachymeres, Nicephorus Gregoras, and other Byzantine intellectuals suggests that the Mongol leaders demonstrated considerable flexibility in their foreign policy and did not show any claims to world domination. The sources also reproduce a number of stories concerning the Mongols, which are also known from the Christian historiography of the South Caucasus and the Middle East, in particular, they speak out the idea of nomads who invaded the cultural lands as a “scourge of God”, but they are still far from an eschatological interpretation of the Mongol invasion and do not interpret it in terms of “the whole world”. They do not express thoughts about the need to submit to this inevitable evil. Byzantine authors describe quite accurately the goals of Mongol conquest campaigns and diplomatic activities of the Mongol leaders. It can be assumed that relations between Byzantium and the Mongol states were built on an equal basis, or the Byzantine authors carefully avoided any hints of inequality in their works. The image of Genghis Khan drawn in the analyzed sources does not contain anything messianic or heroic; moreover, not all authors know who exactly was a founder of the Mongol Empire, and they attribute the leadership of Genghis Khan’s military campaigns to his descendants. Thus, the Mongol “imperialism” in the Byzantine sources is very poorly traced, which, however, does not detract from their value in reconstruction of the mental climate of the Mongol Empire and its historical successors.

A Visionary Approach: Lynn A. De Silva and The Prospects for Buddhist-Christian Encounter ed. by Elizabeth J. Harris and Perry Schmidt-Leukel

Reviewed by: A Visionary Approach: Lynn A. De Silva and The Prospects for Buddhist-Christian Encounter ed. by Elizabeth J. Harris and Perry Schmidt-Leukel Leo D. Lefebure A VISIONARY APPROACH: LYNN A. DE SILVA AND THE PROSPECTS FOR BUDDHIST-CHRISTIAN ENCOUNTER. Edited by Elizabeth J. Harris and Perry Schmidt-Leukel. Sankt Ottilien: EOS, 2021. 390 pp. This volume presents essays exploring the legacy of Lynn A. de Silva (1919–1982), a Methodist pastor and biblical scholar in Sri Lanka who was an important pioneer of Buddhist-Christian studies. Most of the chapters are based on presentations at the conference of the European Network of Buddhist-Christian Studies that met at the Benedictine Archabbey of St. Ottilien in 2019. Some of the authors, including Wesley Ariarajah, Aloysius Pieris, and Shantha de Silva (youngest son of Lynn de Silva), knew de Silva personally and offer warm tributes to his memory. Other authors work for institutions that carry on the types of projects that de Silva pioneered: Marshal Fernando is the Director of the Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue, which de Silva founded and directed from 1962–1982; Indunil J. Kodithuwakku Kankanamalage, who is from Sri Lanka, serves as the Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue; and Peniel Rajkumar leads the Interreligious Dialogue and Cooperation Programme of the World Council of Churches. Some authors examine how de Silva developed and modified his understanding of the relationship between Buddhist and Christian perspectives. In his early work in the 1960s, de Silva responded to Buddhist misunderstandings of Christian faith and practice. In the 1970s, he explored how Buddhist teachings could be related to biblical and Christian perspectives in ways that could enhance Christian faith. Toward the end of his life de Silva pondered the degree to which Buddhist and Christian perspectives could be relativized and harmonized. Benedictine Abbot Petrus Hohensteiger traces the development of de Silva's responses to Buddhist belief in reincarnation. De Silva came to reject traditional Protestant Christian eschatology that teaches that a single lifetime will be followed by eternal heaven or hell; but he also rejected Theravada belief in rebirth. Instead, while remaining a Protestant Christian, he developed a belief in purgatory that allowed for self-purification and growth in sanctity after death. De Silva interpreted Buddhist belief in rebirth and Christian belief in resurrection as symbolic pointers toward a single, shared truth of self-negating, self-emptying love. Andreas Nehring focuses on de Silva's study of Buddhism as a popular religion combining Buddhist perspectives with folk religious practices. Drawing on the critical hermeneutics of Paul Ricoeur, Nehring emphasizes the ways in which de Silva's [End Page 403] sympathetic attention to folk Buddhism can shift the dialogue between Buddhists and Christians in positive ways. Gudrun Löwner explores how de Silva turned to visual art and aesthetics to promote mutual understanding between Buddhists and Christians. Amos Yong reflects on de Silva's pneumatological anthropology in conversation with Theravada Buddhists, mentioning the shared effort to find an alternative to eternalism or nihilism. While noting many points of convergence, Yong finds an important difference from Theravada anthropology in de Silva's eschatological interpretation of the corporate and resurrected Spiritual Body of the Apostle Paul. Kurt Gakuro Krammer reflects on how Buddhist-Christian dialogue can change one's understanding of the human being. Observing that most European Buddhists have thus far avoided dialogue, he proposes that de Silva can offer a helpful model of dialogical understanding but also poses the pointed question of whether dialogue has any soteriological impact, such as upon efforts toward social action. This volume is a very important contribution that will be of interest to all persons involved in Buddhist-Christian dialogue. Leo D. Lefebure Georgetown University Copyright © 2022 University of Hawai'i Press

‘This is a Call of God … or is it?’: Narratives about Humans, God and Eschatology in the Dutch Reformed Pietist Community during the COVID-19 Outbreak

Abstract In this study, we examine which narratives were put forward by key figures of the Dutch reformed pietist community during the COVID-19 pandemic. We analyse sermons and news articles from the period March–November 2020. We find, as expected, a dominant narrative of COVID-19 as God’s judgment, a calling to repentance and an event which emphasizes the need for prayer. Although the pandemic was seen as a call by God, the systematic origin of the virus (God/Satan/natural phenomena) remained rather ambiguous. More often it was stated that ‘everything falls under His providence’. The earthly origin of the virus remained mostly unaddressed, as well as eschatological interpretations, contrary to our expectations. We conclude that the main narrative is a general message of repentance, rather than a concrete theological application to the dynamic of the virus, its origins and its subsequent spread. In some cases, virus ‘jargon’ even was used as a tool just to further accentuate general tendencies of reformed pietist theology.

Eusebius of Caesarea, the Roman Empire, and the Fulfillment of Biblical Prophecy: Reassessing Byzantine Imperial Eschatology in the Age of Constantine

AbstractModern scholarship often attributes to Eusebius of Caesarea (d. circa 340 AD) the view that God's heavenly kingdom had become manifest in the Roman Empire of Constantine the Great. Consequently, Eusebius is deemed significant in the development of Christian eschatological thought as the supposed formulator of a new “realized eschatology” for the Christian Roman Empire. Similarly, he is considered the originator of so-called “Byzantine imperial eschatology”—that is, eschatology designed to justify the existing imperial order under the emperors in Constantinople. Scholars advancing these claims most frequently cite a line from Eusebius's Tricennial Oration in which he identified the accession of the sons of Constantine with the prophesied kingdom of the saints in the Book of Daniel. Further supposed evidence has been adduced in his other writings, especially his Life of Constantine. This article argues that this common interpretation of Eusebius's eschatology is mistaken and has resulted from treating a few passages in isolation while overlooking their rhetorical context. It demonstrates instead that Eusebius adhered to a conventional Christian eschatology centered on the future kingdom of heaven that would accompany the second coming of Christ and further suggests that the concept of “Byzantine imperial eschatology” should be reconsidered.

Work in God’s World: Reception and Theology of the Sabbath Commandment

ABSTRACT The essay explores the implications of the Sabbath commandment in the Decalogue for a theological understanding of work, partly via its reception in a variety of Jewish and Christian contexts; it is argued that wherever in Christian texts Sunday rest is justified by the Decalogue, we are dealing with the reception of the commandment. It is further argued that the main elements of the texts convey the sense that God’s purposes for creation as a whole and for human beings take priority over all human work. The commandment itself implies that the working week is a preparation for its culmination in the Sabbath when the rest offered by God is enjoyed, and only God’s work may be done. The motivation in Deuteronomy implies ultimately the liberation of all slaves, and the end of alienated labor in the modern economy. The motivation in Exodus demands the subordination of the human economic project as a whole to the enjoyment of creation and the adoration of its creator. The conclusion argues that this interpretation supports the validity of some traditional Christian interpretations of the commandment, specifically the spiritual and the eschatological interpretations.

GOD IS TELLING US SOMETHING

The conflicting and different reactions to Covid-19 pandemic, ranging from a willingness to cooperate with health authorities to a violent rejection of all decisions and measures suggested or taken by local and international authorities are but expressions of framing meanings of and finding answers to why Covid-19 broke out on a such global scale beyond biological boundaries. This is to show why epidemics such as Covid-19 deserve to be investigated within their broader cultural, political, scientific, and geographic contexts. Religion or the religious rationale once again has made itself a site of interest in the public space; both as one of the many competing explanatory frameworks and as a scapegoat for contributing to the breakdown of the social order and for promoting unscientific, irrational and superstitious understandings and interpretations of Covid-19. As a matter of fact, certain religious communities across all the Abrahamic religions do present theological and eschatological interpretations of the pandemic. As we shall see, Messianic Jewish groups actually present a hermeneutical framework that consists of a theological-eschatological framework of the Covid-19 pandemic and a socio-political pantheism plan of action the aim of which is to maintain the believer immune to the attacks of secularism and its ills. On the latter point, I find Rabbi Amnon Yitzhak’s explanatory framework of the Covid-19 pandemic very informative as both to how the religious rationale is still at work in post-secular societies, and why Jewish ultra-orthodoxy’s theological-eschatological explanation and social pantheist response are worth investigating. In this article, Rabbi Amnon Yitzhak’s “perception, interpretation and response” to the Covid-19 pandemic and its global impact on both the biological and the social aspects shall be the primary subject of our analysis.

Wo ist Gott in der Pandemie? Theologische Überlegungen aus Praxis und Reflexion kirchenleitenden Handelns

Abstract The pandemic has confronted the churches with various difficult questions both practical and theological. Is there a responsible way of celebrating worship in the churches without risking people’s health? Numerous creative new digital formats were developed in the parishes to offer alternatives. How does God work in the pandemic? Is there any causal connection between God and the virus? The responses to this question are not only of philosophical importance, but have fundamental consequences on how we pray and how we identify God’s presence in our lives. Some responses affirm God’s role in the origin of the virus, e.g. by identifying the work of the deus absconditus in it, others emphasize the mysteriousness of God’s action, others see God’s action in God’s spirit of creative energy to overcome suffering in human and non-human nature. The latter approach is developed by an understanding of God based on God’s revelation in Jesus Christ and an eschatological interpretation of its visibility beyond current experiences of destruction and despair.

The Typological Expectation of Psalm 68 and its Application in Ephesians 4:8

Paul’s use of Psalm 68:18 in Ephesians 4:8 has historically been a crux interpretum for New Testament hermeneutics and Pauline scholars alike, for Paul appears to misapply the features of the psalm to Christ. In light of recent scholarship, this paper argues that Paul’s apparent misapplication of the psalm is resolved by a proper recognition of the psalm’s typological framework. Paul applied Psalm 68:18 to Christ in light of the psalm’s typological expectation and its redemptive–historical fulfilment in Christ. The psalm’s typological indicators are evident in view of its retrospective and prospective orientation and the probable allusions to Exodus 15 and Judges 5. YHWH’s ascension, captives, and gifts in Psalm 68:18 correspond to and anticipate a greater ascension, captives, and gifts. The eschatological interpretation of the psalm explains its use in Ephesians 4:7-16, for it sheds light on the unusual appearance of διό introducing the citation, the textual modifications Paul introduced to the citation, Paul’s choice of Psalm 68:18 in particular, and Paul’s emphasis on ministers of the word in Ephesians 4:11-16. This analysis absolves Paul from the charge of hermeneutical insensitivity and aptly illustrates his hermeneutical approach to the Old Testament Scriptures.

Aquinas and Romans 11:26

ABSTRACT The debate over whether (and how) Paul provides a positive verdict on the Jewish people is an ongoing one, and a significant part of that debate concerns the interpretation of Paul’s words in Romans 11:26 that “all Israel will be saved.” In this article, I argue that a consideration of Aquinas’s Commentary on Romans, and in particular his reading of Romans 11:26, reveals a surprisingly positive assessment of the place of the Jewish people in salvation history, and one that bears fruit when brought into dialogue with contemporary exegetical concerns, in particular, by providing resources for a theologically grounded response to N. T. Wright’s criticisms of eschatological interpretations of Romans 11:26. My argument in this article has a twofold purpose: first, to contribute to the growing body of scholarship defending a positive evaluation of Aquinas’s place in the reception history of Romans 11:26, and second, to give support to the thesis that Aquinas (as scriptural commentator) can be a useful voice in contemporary Pauline exegesis.

“A Glorious Spiritual and Political Achievement”: Reinhold Niebuhr on Zionism, Israel, and Realism

Reinhold Niebuhr is remembered as an inspiration for the revival of “realism” in US foreign policy. He was also one of America’s most visible Christian supporters of the state of Israel. Niebuhr rejected eschatological interpretations of Jewish destiny. But his lifelong support for Zionism rested partly on religious grounds—including a conception of providence that linked America’s global responsibility with the survival of the Jewish state.