Escape Training Research Articles

A pre-exercise screening of helicopter underwater escape training using a modified human reliability analysis with rule-based mechanism

This study conducts a human reliability analysis to develop a pre-exercise screening tool for helicopter underwater escape training (HUET) to proactively improve training facilities and to contribute attendees' performance. In this context, a modified human error assessment and reduction technique (HEART) was adapted. The technique investigates error producing conditions (EPC) and general task type (GTT) variables considering attendees profile, training infrastructure conditions, and 16 sub-steps of HUET exercises. Since the identification of EPC and GTT is still a key limitation of traditional HEART, this study extends a basic rule-based mechanism based on if-then-else comparison matrix structure to enhance accuracy in practice. The case study underscores the feasibility of individual, provider, and procedural interventions, enhancing training success and practical application of skills in real incidents. The application of a rule-based selection algorithm for GTT determination enhances objectivity, contributing to a more controlled identification and minimisation of errors. The case study, tailored specifically for practical training, delineates the feasibility of individual-based, training provider-based, and procedural-based interventions. Additionally, mitigating factors like ‘emotional stress’ and ‘unfamiliarity’ through advanced safety measures can boost attendees' self-confidence, leading to improved training success and practical skill application in real-world scenarios.

Pneumothorax during manned chamber operations: A summary of reported cases

In-chamber pneumothorax has complicated medically remote professional diving operations, submarine escape training, management of decompression illness, and hospital-based provision of hyperbaric oxygen therapy. Attempts to avoid thoracotomy by combination of high oxygen partial pressure breathing (the concept of inherent unsaturation) and greatly slowed rates of chamber decompression proved successful on several occasions. When this delicate balance designed to prevent the intrapleural gas volume from expanding faster than it contracts proved futile, chest drains were inserted. The presence of pneumothorax was misdiagnosed or missed altogether with disturbing frequency, resulting in wide-ranging clinical consequences. One patient succumbed before the chamber had been fully decompressed. Another was able to ambulate unaided from the chamber before being diagnosed and managed conventionally. In between these two extremes, patients experienced varying degrees of clinical compromise, from respiratory distress to cardiopulmonary arrest, with successful resuscitation. Pneumothorax associated with manned chamber operations is commonly considered to develop while the patient is under pressure and manifests during ascent. However, published reports suggest that many were pre-existing prior to chamber entry. Risk factors included pulmonary barotrauma-induced cerebral arterial gas embolism, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and medical or surgical procedures usually involving the lung. This latter category is of heightened importance to hyperbaric operations as an iatrogenically induced pneumothorax may take as long as 24 hours to be detected, perhaps long after a patient has been cleared for chamber exposure.

Buoyant ascent rate profiles for the MK10 and MK11 submarine escape and immersion equipment

Introduction: Since the U.S. Navy transitioned from the MK10 to the MK11 submarine escape and immersion equipment (SEIE) there has been an increase in the incident rate of pulmonary barotrauma during submarine escape training. This study compares ascent rate profiles of the MK10 and MK11 SEIE to determine if ascent rate differences between the escape suits are associated with an increase in pulmonary barotraumas. Methods: Buoyant ascent rates of the MK10 and MK11 SEIE were compared using weighted manikins equivalent to the 1st, 50th, and 99th percentile body weight of a submariner. Human ascents using the MK11 (n=126) were compared to human ascents in the same trainer wearing the MK10 (n=124). Results: Manikin mean ascent times were faster for the MK10 compared to the MK11 (5.19 seconds vs 5.28 seconds, p < 0.05). Terminal velocity (Vt) was affected by manikin weight (p < 0.001). Human trials confirmed the manikin results. The average mean ascent velocity for the MK10 group was 0.155 meters/second faster than the MK11 group mean ascent velocity (p < 0.001). Mean ascent velocity was inversely correlated with all anthropometrics for the MK10 group (p < 0.01). Neither height nor body mass index showed a significant association with mean ascent velocity for the MK11 group. Conclusions: The Vt of buoyant ascents are significantly affected by body weight. As the mean ascent rate of the MK11 is slower than that of the MK10, ascent rate profile differences between the suits do not appear to explain the recent increase in pulmonary barotrauma incident rates during escape training.

VR training program for fire escape: Learning progress predicted by the perception of fire presence, VR operational frustration, and gameplay self-efficacy

Most VR fire escape training programs only task learners to observe the procedure of fire escape in different simulated fire scenes. To improve the effectiveness of such training programs for everyone, we tested a “fire escape virtual reality training program” which takes advantage of the feedback on the action to help individuals to learn the necessary and correct steps of fire escape. The virtual program emulates a real fire scene by providing realistic visual and auditory stimuli. A single-group quasi-experimental study was carried out to measure the effectiveness of the program, and a total of 173 seventh- and eighth-grade students from a high school in New Taipei City participated. The results of structural equation modeling showed that 1) gameplay self-efficacy was negatively predicted by frustration, 2) fire presence positively predicted gameplay self-efficacy, and 3) gameplay self-efficacy positively predicted learning progress. The findings suggested that critical life-saving skills such as fire escape skills can be readily acquired and trained through individual virtual reality training programs.

Shallow Water Blackout (Hypoxic Blackout)–Induced Drowning: An Autopsy Report of Two Cases

Shallow water blackout (SWB) is defined as loss of consciousness due to hypoxia during underwater swimming or breath-holding, usually in shallow waters. To date, no cases of SWB-induced drowning have been reported in the Republic of Korea. Here, we report two cases of SWB, followed by drowning, with autopsy findings. Two men, aged 20 (case 1) and 25 (case 2) years, suddenly lost their consciousness during underwater swimming and escape training, respectively. Postmortem examination revealed foamy fluid within trachea and bronchus, pulmonary edema, and sphenoid sinus fluid, which are commonly observed findings in drowning cases. None of the organs in either case showed pathologic alterations, except for hypoplastic coronary artery disease incidentally found in case 2. Pathologists should be aware of this distinct pathologic entity to avoid misdiagnosing the cause or manner of death.

Testosterone status following short-term, severe energy deficit is associated with fat-free mass loss in U.S. Marines.

The objective of this study was to determine metabolic and physiological differences between males with low testosterone (LT) versus those with normal testosterone (NT) following a period of severe energy deficit. In this secondary analysis, 68 male US Marines (mean ± SD, 24.6 ± 2.4 y) were dichotomized by testosterone concentration (< or ≥ 10.5 nmol/L as determined from a single blood sample collected between 0600–0630 after an 8–10 h overnight fast by automated immunoassay) following 7 days of near complete starvation (~300 kcal consumed/d, ~85% energy deficit) during Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) training. Dietary intake was assessed before (PRE) SERE. Body composition (dual‐energy x‐ray absorptiometry and peripheral quantitative computed tomography) and whole‐body protein turnover (15N alanine) were assessed before (PRE) and after (POST) SERE. Mean testosterone concentrations decreased PRE (17.5 ± 4.7 nmol/L) to POST (9.8 ± 4.0 nmol/L, p < 0.0001). When volunteers were dichotomized by POST testosterone concentrations [NT (n = 24) 14.1 ± 3.4 vs. LT (n = 44): 7.5 ± 1.8 nmol/L, p < 0.0001], PRE BMI, total fat mass, trunk fat mass, and testosterone were greater and the diet quality score and total carbohydrate intake were lower in NT compared to LT (p ≤ 0.05). LT lost more fat‐free mass and less fat mass, particularly in the trunk region, compared to NT following SERE (p‐interaction≤0.044). Whole‐body protein synthesis, net balance, and flux decreased and whole‐body protein breakdown increased from PRE to POST in both groups (p‐time ≤0.025). Following short‐term, severe energy deficit, Marines who exhibited low testosterone had greater fat‐free mass loss than those who maintained normal testosterone concentrations. Altering body composition and dietary strategies prior to physical training that elicits severe energy deficit may provide an opportunity to attenuate post‐training decrements in testosterone and its associated effects (e.g., loss of lean mass, performance declines, fatigue).

Immersive Virtual Reality Serious Games With DL-Assisted Learning in High-Rise Fire Evacuation on Fire Safety Training and Research.

In case of fires in high-rise buildings, appropriate safe behaviors for leaving the high floors are the key to reducing injuries and increasing the chance of survival. Traditional training methods are often used to provide knowledge about a fire escape but may become ineffective in terms of knowledge acquisition and internalization. Serious games are an innovative teaching method, aiming at training and educating people in game environments. In recent years, immersive virtual reality has become popular in many educational environments. Various educational training programs are combined with serious games and attract more and more attention because they can make users feel highly involved and promote learning cognition. Therefore, this study proposed the fire safety training of high-rise building fire escape based on virtual reality and invited 140 college students to make explorations through this virtual situation. In addition, deep learning was integrated into the recommended safety training system, so that students could be trained in areas where concepts were ill-defined. According to the results, through the high-rise building fire escape training based on virtual reality, students’ fire safety skills were significantly improved and most students could use their behavioral skills in real situations, which has positive effects on promoting the development of fire escape knowledge. Finally, according to the analysis on the results of the DL-assisted learning system, some suggestions were made in this study on behavioral skills training for professional firefighters and researchers.

What does the Historical Record Say about the Chances of Surviving an Escape from a Disabled Submarine?

IntroductionDespite US Navy and international Disabled Submarine (DISSUB) rescue capabilities, escape remains an important means of DISSUB crew survival as the crew may be forced to conduct an escape before rescue assets arrive on site due to adverse conditions onboard or operational or engineering constraints that may render rescue impossible. The main aims of the current study were to conduct an analysis of historical DISSUB records to describe the likely biomedical evolution of crew survivability following the disabling of a submarine in shallow waters, in order to develop a casualty estimate and define the main risks to escapee survival.MethodsFrom unclassified historical and scientific publications, we collated and categorized international DISSUB events in which escape was effected or attempted by any part of the crew, dating from the earliest documented DISSUB escape in 1851 until September 2019. Both non‐combat and combat sinkings were included. We also reviewed at‐sea submarine escape trial experience and medical incidents from US Navy pressurized submarine escape training records to estimate air embolism and extra‐alveolar air casualties and fatalities during escape training. Our analysis identified the casualty risk for DISSUB survivors for the following three phases: (1) survival in the submarine before escape, (2) survival during the escape ascent, and (3) survival on the surface.Results &amp; ConclusionsUsing historical data from a total of 437 attempted DISSUB escapes that included 37 accidental and combat submarine sinkings, the following observations were made: The largest number of casualties occurred during the onboard survival phase due to atmospheric toxicity. 72% of the submariners who attempted an escape survived the escape. Escapes have been successful from a DISSUB as deep as 240 feet sea water (fsw) and experimentally during at sea submarine escape trials from depths down to 600 fsw. All historical escapes were effected within the current 72‐hour time to first rescue timeframe, with the majority occurring within 4 hours of DISSUB onset. The majority of escapees who survived were recovered from the water within 60 min. Early rescue surface response mobilization and detailed crew knowledge of escape equipment, procedures, and the physiological phenomena encountered under increased and changing pressures are essential to enhance escapee survivability. US Navy submarine escape training records indicated very low risk (&lt;0.5%) of pulmonary over inflation syndrome or arterial gas embolism and no fatalities during the past 11 years of pressurized escape training.

Stress and the gut-brain axis: Cognitive performance, mood state, and biomarkers of blood-brain barrier and intestinal permeability following severe physical and psychological stress

BackgroundPhysical and psychological stress alter gut-brain axis activity, potentially causing intestinal barrier dysfunction that may, in turn, induce cognitive and mood impairments through exacerbated inflammation and blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability. These interactions are commonly studied in animals or artificial laboratory environments. However, military survival training provides an alternative and unique human model for studying the impacts of severe physical and psychological stress on the gut-brain axis in a realistic environment. PurposeTo determine changes in intestinal barrier and BBB permeability during stressful military survival training and identify relationships between those changes and markers of stress, inflammation, cognitive performance, and mood state. Materials and methodsSeventy-one male U.S. Marines (25.2 ± 2.6 years) were studied during Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape (SERE) training. Measurements were conducted on day 2 of the 10-day classroom phase of training (PRE), following completion of the 7.5-day field-based simulation phase of the training (POST), and following a 27-day recovery period (REC). Fat-free mass (FFM) was measured to assess the overall physiologic impact of the training. Biomarkers of intestinal permeability (liposaccharide-binding protein [LBP]) and BBB permeability (S100 calcium-binding protein B [S100B]), stress (cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate [DHEA-S] epinephrine, norepinephrine) and inflammation (interleukin-6 [IL-6], high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hsCRP]) were measured in blood. Cognitive performance was assessed by psychomotor vigilance (PVT) and grammatical reasoning (GR) tests, and mood state by the Profile of Mood States (total mood disturbance; TMD), General Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7), and Patient Health (PHQ-9) questionnaires. ResultsFFM, psychomotor vigilance, and LBP decreased from PRE to POST, while TMD, anxiety, and depression scores, and S100B, DHEA-S, IL-6, norepinephrine, and epinephrine concentrations all increased (all p ≤ 0.01). Increases in DHEA-S were associated with decreases in body mass (p = 0.015). Decreases in FFM were associated with decreases in LBP concentrations (p = 0.015), and both decreases in FFM and LBP were associated with increases in TMD and depression scores (all p < 0.05) but not with changes in cognitive performance. Conversely, increases in S100B concentrations were associated with decreases in psychomotor vigilance (p < 0.05) but not with changes in mood state or LBP concentrations. ConclusionsEvidence of increased intestinal permeability was not observed in this military survival training-based model of severe physical and psychological stress. However, increased BBB permeability was associated with stress and cognitive decline, while FFM loss was associated with mood disturbance, suggesting that distinct mechanisms may contribute to decrements in cognitive performance and mood state during the severe physical and psychological stress experienced during military survival training.

An Autopsy Report of Hypoplastic Coronary Artery Disease Incidentally Identified in a Young Man

Hypoplastic coronary artery disease (HCAD) is a rare congenital abnormality characterized by underdevelopment of one or more major branches of the coronary arteries, which may lead to myocardial infarction and sudden death. We report a case of HCAD that was incidentally detected during autopsy in a 25-year-old male soldier who died during underwater escape training. On macroscopic examination, the right coronary artery measured 1 mm in diameter, which was significantly smaller than that of other coronary arteries. We observed no anomalies in addition to HCAD. Death was attributed to drowning, which was consistent with autopsy findings and the circumstances of death. Although extremely rare, if sudden cardiac death is suspected in children and young adults, it must be confirmed through careful evaluation.

Case Series of Arterial Gas Embolism Incidents in U.S. Navy Pressurized Submarine Escape Training From 2018 to 2019.

The goal of Pressurized Submarine Escape Training (PSET) is to prepare future submariners for the physical and mental challenges of escaping a disabled submarine and promote proper handling of the Beaufort Ltd Mk 11 Submarine Escape and Immersion Equipment suit. Training participants are only permitted to enter PSET after strict health screening protocols have been met to optimize trainees' safety. Before PSET, trainees are given detailed, one-on-one instruction on proper ascent mechanics by specially trained Navy Dive instructors. Since the reinstatement of PSET by the U.S. Navy, four incidents of arterial gas embolism (AGE) have occurred in submarine trainees with a 10-year period (2009-2019). Of these four incidents, three were observed within a couple months of each other from 2018 to 2019. A comprehensive review of AGE history, epidemiology, dive physiology, pathophysiology, and management was completed. Prompted by the recent incidents relative to the low reported incidence rate of AGE in historical PSET training, reported potential risk factors were compared with better understand potential etiologies of AGE in already medically screened individuals. Risks and benefits of PSET were listed, compared, and analyzed. The relative safety and cost effectiveness of this rigorous form of training was reconfirmed.

Dynamic Bayesian Network-Based Escape Probability Estimation for Coach Fire Accidents

Coach emergency escape research is an effective measure to reduce casualties under serious vehicle fire accidents. A novel experiment method employing a wireless transducer was implemented and the head rotation speed, rotation moment and rotation duration were collected as the input variables for the classification and regression tree (CART) model. Based on this model, the classification result explicitly pointed out that the exit searching efficiency was evolving. By ignoring the last three unimportant factors from the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), the ultimate Dynamic Bayesian Network (DBN) was built with the temporal part of the CART output and the time-independent part of the vehicle characteristics. Simulation showed that the most efficient exit searching period is the middle escape stage, which is 10 seconds after the emergency signal is triggered, and the escape probability clearly increases with the efficient exit searching. Furthermore, receiving emergency escape training contributes to a significant escape probability improvement of more than 10%. Compared with different failure modes, the emergency hammer layout and door reliability have a more significant influence on the escape probability improvement than aisle condition. Based on the simulation results, the escape probability will significantly drop below 0.55 if the emergency hammers, door, and aisle are all in a failure state.

Evaluation of the Helicopter Emergency Breathing Apparatus on Egress Performance.

BACKGROUND: Emergency helicopter landing at sea is dangerous. Specialized training, known as helicopter underwater escape training (HUET), prepares occupants to quickly exit the helicopter, which often inverts and sinks. In most jurisdictions, helicopter occupants are equipped with a helicopter underwater egress breathing apparatus (HUEBA) to provide sufficient air for escape. HUET trainees report that the HUEBA is easy to use, but it is well known that learners are often overconfident in their judgement of learning. To better understand how the HUEBA affects HUET sequence performance, we investigated whether using the HUEBA influences the sequence movement time and number of errors.METHODS: Twelve participants (7 men and 5 women, mean age 25.33 9.57 SD) with no prior experience with HUET performed consecutive trials of the HUET sequence, 5 with the HUEBA and 5 without the HUEBA. Video of each trial recorded the total movement time and enabled movement time analyses of each component of the sequence: crossing arms, tucking the head, pushing the window, inserting the regulator, and releasing the seatbelt. These recordings were also used to score performance errors according to a checklist.RESULTS: Analyses revealed that using a HUEBA increased the total movement time and time to release the seatbelt by 0.36 and 0.39 s, respectively, in comparison to without the HUEBA.DISCUSSION: Our study illustrates that using the HUEBA during the HUET sequence increases total movement time and time to release the seatbelt. However, this difference is marginal and unlikely to have practical significance during underwater escape.King M, Sanli E, Mugford K, Martina S, Brown R, Carnahan H. Evaluation of the helicopter emergency breathing apparatus on egress performance. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2020; 91(12):962965.

Investigating Coercion, Abuse, and Manipulation: Recognizing the Legacy of the Cold War

In this manuscript, the authors examine the Cold War roots of the movement to study groups that engage in undue influence. In particular, the authors consider the transitions of some scholars directly from Cold War brainwashing research to the study of these groups and also the activities of researchers who did not directly address groups but established enduring foundations in this field. The authors also consider expert testimony in both the Hearst trial and a government program, the Survival, Evasion, Resistance, and Escape training program, which brought together disparate scholars to address these ideas. The authors then examine the influence of developments in social psychology on approaches to Cold War brainwashing and its connection to the later literature about groups that may use undue influence. The paper concludes with a review of strengths and limitations from this literature that remain in the study of these groups.

A study of limbic brain derived neurotrophic factor gene expression in male Sprague-Dawley rats trained on a learned helplessness task

BackgroundBrain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) has been linked to the etiology and pathology of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Here, the relationship between learned helplessness (LH), a cognitive/motivational state relevant to MDD, and BDNF mRNA in various limbic regions, was investigated. MethodsIn Sprague-Dawley male rats, LH was induced by escape training, using a triadic design of stressor controllability involving exposure to no shocks (NS), escapable shocks (ES) or yoked inescapable shocks (IES). LH was subsequently assessed in an active avoidance task, and levels of BDNF mRNA in limbic brain regions were compared across the triad following testing. ResultsAlthough the IES group displayed greater LH, BDNF mRNA levels were lower in the hippocampus and higher in the nucleus accumbens of both IES and ES groups. In contrast, BDNF mRNA in the basolateral amygdala was elevated only in rats exposed to IES. ConclusionThese results suggest that the inability to control an aversive stimulus can lead to a LH behavioural phenotype that is associated with region-specific alterations of BDNF gene expression in limbic nuclei.

Identifying Predictors of Pressurized Submarine Escape Training (PSET) Attrition.

Pressurized Submarine Escape Training (PSET) physically prepares submariners to safely escape a submarine at depth. Failure to complete PSET is not a submarine service disqualification. Serious medical incidents are rare, but the safety record tradeoff has been low throughput. From 2009 to 2015, only 34% of students screened completed PSET. Students may be medically screened out of the training altogether (disqualified), or dropout during the physical training (attrite). Training records from 12,122 U.S. Navy students were used to identify factors contributing to training disqualification and attrition. Multivariate logistic regression model predictors included demographic and screening items. Association to PSET disqualification included cold/congestion/cough (ORadj 12.34), limited duty status (ORadj 4.29), Physical Readiness Test failure (ORadj 3.37), pneumonia or bronchitis in last 2 years (ORadj 3.17) and nervousness or anxiety in tight spaces (ORadj 2.37). Basic Enlisted Submarine School students were more likely to be disqualified and attrite than other submariner groups, and black/African American (ORadj 1.53) students were more likely to attrite than white students. Only cold/congestion/cough (ORadj 1.52), trouble swimming (ORadj 1.53), and screening during cold/flu season (ORadj 1.28), were associated with training attrition. Recommendations to modify screening requirements are listed in conclusions.

Employee safety perception following workplace terrorism: a longitudinal study

ABSTRACT Terrorism at the workplace represents an extreme form of workplace violence potentially affecting large numbers of individuals. Evidence suggests that workplace violence adversely affects employees’ health and work functioning by increasing perceived threat and decreasing perceived safety. The objective of this study was to explore longitudinal associations between perceived safety at work among employees exposed to a workplace terrorist attack and their views on security measures and emergency preparedness. The study comprised a three-wave follow-up of earlier cross-sectional studies on perceived safety at work in ministerial employees exposed to a terrorist attack in Oslo, Norway, in 2011 (N = 3065). Linear mixed-effects modelling was used to explore how perceived safety at work was associated with employees’ perceptions on the prioritization of security measures at work, their knowledge of evacuation procedures, and the extent of escape and evacuation training. The more employees believed security measures were sufficiently prioritized at work and the better their knowledge of evacuation procedures, the higher they rated perceived safety at work. These findings applied both across employees (between-subject effects) and within employees across time (within-subject effects). Employees’ views on the extent of escape and evacuation training were not strongly associated with perceived safety at work. Secondary analysis showed that post-traumatic stress reactions were negatively associated with perceived safety at work, and that the positive association between knowledge of evacuation procedures and perceived safety at work was weaker in women and more educated employees. In conclusion, following terrorism at the workplace, employees’ perceived safety at work might be increased if employers prioritize security measures and provide good information on evacuation procedures. For employees with high levels of post-traumatic stress reactions, adequate treatment of these reactions will be likely to lead to enhanced perceived safety at work.

Adrenal Stress and Performance during Military Survival Training

PURPOSE: The purpose of this research study was to evaluate neuroendocrine and physical performance responses in sailors and Marines undergoing U.S. Navy Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) training. METHODS: 20 men (Age: 25.3 ± 3.6 years; Height: 178.1 ± 6.1 cm; Weight: 83.7 ± 12.6 kg) took part in the study. Men were further split into high fit (n =10) and low fit (n = 10) subgroups based on physical fitness test scores. Blood samples were obtained at three timepoints (T1: baseline, T2: stress, T3: recovery), and were analyzed for plasma epinephrine, plasma norepinephrine, plasma dopamine, serum cortisol, serum testosterone, and plasma neuropeptide Y. Vertical jump and handgrip tests were performed at T1 and T2. RESULTS: For the group as a whole (n = 20), stress hormone concentrations were significantly elevated at T2, with a concomitant reduction in testosterone concentrations. NPY concentrations did not increase at T2, but decreased significantly at T3. Subjects maintained performance on the vertical jump and handgrip tests from T1 to T2. Significant between group differences were observed in norepinephrine (high fit: 3530.64 ± 2146.54 pmol•L-1, low fit: 4907.16 ± 3020.85 pmol•L-1) and NPY (high fit: 169.3 ± 85.89 pg•mL-1, low fit: 123.02 ± 88.86 pg•mL-1) responses at recovery (T3). CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed that despite differential catecholamine and NPY responses during recovery, the SERE training course resulted in significant increases in stress hormone concentrations in all subjects regardless of physical fitness level, with no reductions in physical performance measures.

A Barnes maze for juvenile rats delineates the emergence of spatial navigation ability.

The neural bases of cognition may be greatly informed by relating temporally defined developmental changes in behavior with concurrent alterations in neural function. A robust improvement in performance in spatial learning and memory tasks occurs at 3 wk of age in rodents. We reported that the developmental increase of spontaneous alternation in a Y-maze was related to changes in temporal dynamics of fast glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the hippocampus. We also showed that, during allothetic behaviors in the Y-maze, network oscillation power increased at frequency bands known to support spatial learning and memory in adults. However, there are no discrete learning and memory phases during free exploration in the Y-maze. Thus, we adapted the Barnes maze for use with juvenile rats. Following a single platform exposure in dim light on the day before training (to encourage exploration), animals were trained on the subsequent 2 d in bright light to find a hidden escape box and then underwent a memory test 24 h later. During escape training, the older animals learned the task in 1 d, while the younger animals required 2 d and did not reach the performance of older animals. Long-term memory performance was also superior in the older animals. Thus, we have validated the use of the Barnes maze for this developmental period and established a timeline for the ontogeny of spatial navigation ability in this maze around 3 wk of age. Subsequent work will pair in vivo recording of hippocampal oscillations and single units with this task to help identify how hippocampal maturation might relate to performance improvements.

Psychological considerations in submarine escape training: brief overview and future directions.

The inability of a submarine to surface must rate as one of greatest risks to sailors in peacetime. To prepare for such emergencies, many navies provide training to master the procedures required to escape successfully from disabled submarines. This paper provides a brief overview of some of the psychological principles in simulated submarine escape training. It further discusses applicable psychological constructs such as positive outcome expectancies, the role of anxiety, and other personal factors mediating outcomes of such training. It concludes with recommendations for future research aimed at enhancing the safety and impact of submarine escape training. These include enhanced detection of psychological risk factors such as anxiety, as well as investigating the relative contribution of personality variables to in-training safety and positive outcome expectancies. These recommendations do not only apply to submarine escape training, but may also be applicable to high fidelity safety training in other off-shore survival contexts, such as helicopter underwater escape training, freefall lifeboat training and smoke diving.