Entire Weld Research Articles

Strengthening of Al/Cu dissimilar joint due to complicated interface produced by pulsed TIG welding with a constricted nozzle

Al/Cu dissimilar joining is a key technology for weight reduction in fabricating high-functional products, however, conventional tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding is difficult to be applied due to a large fusion area. The constricted nozzle equipped inside the conventional TIG torch has been developed and can improve the position accuracy of tungsten electrode and arc plasma characteristics, moreover increase the heat input density. In this study, 0.5 mm-thick Al and Cu dissimilar sheets were butt welded using pulsed TIG welding with the constricted nozzle under two welding speed-current combinations of 50 mm/s-85 A and 100 mm/s-105 A. The 50 mm/s-85 A joint exhibited that Al and Cu mixed each other in the entire weld metal, containing two intermetallic compounds (IMC) of Al2Cu and Al4Cu9 mainly in the Al side. In contrast, both elements hardly mixed each other in the 100 mm/s-105 A weld metal and the interface exhibited hook-like shape at a nearly constant pitch, depending on the welding speed and pulse frequency. Consequently, the formation of IMC layers was limited. Based on the three-dimensional images reconstructed using a serial sectioning technique, the hook-shaped Al/Cu interface was also formed inside the weld metal. The mixed-zone volume per unit weld length of the 100 mm/s-105 A joint was estimated to be about 0.12 mm3/mm, and is much smaller than that of the 50 mm/s-85 A joint (0.97 mm3/mm). The average tensile strength of the 100 mm/s-105 A joint were higher than those of the 50 mm/s-85 A joint, suggesting that the hook-shaped Al/Cu interface together with the reduced mixed zone seems to increase the joint strength.

Different ways for HAZ microstructure preparation and testing on high alloy steel

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the part of the weld that is affected by the heat generated by the welding process during welding. The microstructure of the HAZ is very heterogeneous and consists of different zones such as the coarse-grained HAZ, the fine-grained HAZ, the intercritical HAZ, and the over-tempred HAZ [1]. All these zones are very narrow and their properties are slightly different. These properties affect the integrity of the entire weld, so in many cases the HAZ may be the worst part of the weld. Another challenge is determining the properties of the individual HAZ regions, since the entire HAZ is very narrow and inhomogeneous. For this reason, many properties cannot be determined accurately, with the exception of a few, such as hardness, for which only a small region is sufficient for measurement. Therefore, it is important to know how to produce the individual microstructure of a HAZ in a wider range of the material in order to determine the actual properties of such a HAZ. One of the ways is to measure the welding parameters during welding to determine the actual influence of the thermal cycle on the formation of the invidual microstructure of HAZ in the weld. Moreover, it is crucial to repeat this weld thermal cycle in an unaffected base metal on a thermal welding simulator to obtain a suitable microstructure of the HAZ [1,2]. The second option is to prepare the microstructure in the furnace by slow heating which is followed by rapid cooling [1,3]. Both processes must be precise and accurate to obtain suitable HAZ microstructures. This article addresses the challenges of producing HAZ microstructures on the high-alloy steel CT781, which is widely used in the automotive industry for parts subjected to high dynamic loads.

Mechanisms of abnormal grain growth in friction-stir-welded aluminum alloy 6061-T6

The relationship between the temperature conditions during friction-stir welding (FSW), the stir-zone microstructure, and the thermal stability of welded aluminum-alloy 6061 joints was established. To facilitate interpretation of the microstructural data, temperature distributions generated during FSW were quantified using a finite-element-modeling (FEM) approach. In all cases, the stir-zone microstructure was found to be unstable against abnormal grain growth (AGG) during post-weld solution annealing. Moreover, it was found that AGG always developed very rapidly, being nearly complete during heating of the welded material from ambient condition to the solution temperature. In all welded conditions, annealing behavior followed Humphrey's cellular-growth model. In particular, for low-heat-input conditions, a combination of a fine-grain structure and a low content of secondary particles gave rise to a competition between normal grain growth and AGG. As a result, the final grain size was relatively small. By contrast, high-heat-input conditions gave rise to a combination of relatively-coarse grains and a high fraction of particles in the weld nugget, which provided microstructural stability. However, a fine-grain surface layer associated with the tool shoulder triggered catastrophic grain coarsening that eventually consumed the entire weld zone and resulted in millimeter-scale grains. Remarkably, AGG led to a 40 o 〈111〉 rotation of the crystallographic texture in the stir zone. It was thus concluded that the AGG was governed by at least two mechanisms, viz., the pinning effect exerted by second-phase particles and the enhanced mobility of 40 o < 111 > boundaries. • Annealing behavior of FSW joints is critically influenced by the weld heat input. • Abnormal grain growth develops at the early stage of the post-weld heat treatment. • Abnormal grain growth is governed by two different mechanisms.

Friction stir spot welding of dissimilar quality galvanized steel sheets meant for automotive applications using a consumable sheet

Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) is a solid-state spot-joining method used to join aluminum alloys to other materials for fabricating lightweight components. However, the FSSW tool experiences wear and tear during the spot welding of steel-grade sheets. To overcome this problem, in the present work, friction stir spot welding using a consumable sheet (FSSW-C) is proposed, in which the tool does not contact the steel sheet during the entire welding cycle. The main aim of this study is to investigate the application of FSSW-C to dissimilar galvanized steel sheets at various rotational speeds via lap shear tests and examination of the joint macro/microstructures. The lap shear performance was also compared to that of the Self Pierce Rivet (SPR) joint. The results revealed that galvanized steel sheets were successfully spot welded using FSSW-C with a lap shear fracture load of 1.5 kN–2.2 kN, which is approximately 50% of that of SPR joints. The microstructures revealed important features, including microstructural zones such as the stir zone, thermomechanically-affected zone, and heat-affected zone. Intermetallic compound formation was not observed at the joint interface. As the rotational speed increased, the axial force and torque decreased, whereas the temperature increased during FSSW-C. The energy generated increased with an increase in the rotational speed and was significantly different when compared to the data for conventional FSSW.

Comparison of strengthening effect and fatigue properties of SAF2205 cruciform welded joints by ultrasonic impact and cavitation jet peening treatment

The filter press composed of SAF2205 cruciform welded joints generally works under cyclic conditions, resulting in the weld becoming a weak area of fatigue failure. In this study, the strengthening effect of cavitation jet peening treatment (CJP) and ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT) on fatigue properties of SAF2205 cruciform welded joints were compared by experiment. The effects of the three treatment methods, including UIT for the entire weld zone (UIT-A) and UIT only for the weld toe zone (UIT-T), and CJP for the entire weld zone, on residual stresses, surface roughness, microhardness, microstructure and fatigue fracture behavior were analyzed. The results indicate that the fatigue fracture initiation position of the fatigue specimens changed from the weld toe of the treated side to that of the untreated side after UIT-A, UIT-T and CJP. The fatigue life of the cruciform welded joint was increased by a maximum of 163.30% after CJP, while the UIT-A reduced the fatigue life. The order of residual stresses at the fatigue fracture initiation position from large to small was UIT-A, untreated, UIT-T and CJP specimens. Furthermore, the thickness of the formed surface strengthening layer with increased microhardness by UIT-A and CJP was 700 μm and 400 μm, respectively. The CJP could reduce the surface roughness, while the UIT had the opposite effect. The refined grains, higher dislocation density and deformation were generated on the surface after CJP and UIT. The effect of residual stress on fatigue life was more obvious than that of microstructure and surface roughness. Compared with UIT, CJP is a more effective treatment for improving the fatigue life of SAF2205 cruciform welded joints.

The dependence of fracture mode on interfacial microstructure in TA1 pure titanium/AgCuNi/304 stainless steel vacuum brazed joints

Vacuum brazing of TA1/304 stainless steel (SS) was systematically investigated by changing the composition of filler metal, brazing temperature and holding time. The AgCuNi (70.75Ag–28Cu-1.25Ni, wt.%) filler metal was selected to eliminate the excessive TixCuy and TixFey phases in the weld. The defect-free joint with the shear strength of 148.5 MPa was obtained under the vacuum degree of 10−4 Pa, the brazing temperature of 880 °C and the holding time of 10 min. The holding time affected the formation and distribution of Ti3Cu4 phase and the brazing temperature affected the formation of TiCu4 phase and TixFey phases, which caused the cracks at the interface between the weld and the substrates. The excessive TiCu4 phase and TixFey phases near the 304 SS substrate's side led to the transition of the shear section from the entire weld to the interface between the weld and the 304 SS substrate.

Laser Welding Multimodel Quality Forecast Method Based on Dynamic Geometric Features of the Molten Pool.

Laser welding quality forecast is highly significant during the laser manufacturing process. However, extracting the dynamic characteristics of the molten pool in the short laser welding process makes predicting of the welding quality in real time difficult. Accordingly, this study proposes a multimodel quality forecast (MMQF) method based on dynamic geometric features of molten pool to forecast the welding quality in real time. For extraction of geometric features of molten pool, an improved fully convolutional neural network is proposed to segment the collected dynamic molten pool images during the entire welding process. In addition, several dynamic geometric features of the molten pool are extracted by using the minimum enclosed rectangle algorithm with an evaluation of the performance by several statistical indexes. With regard to forecasting the welding quality, a nonlinear quadratic kernel logistic regression model is proposed by mapping the linear inseparable features to the high dimensional space. Experimental results show that the MMQF method can make an effective and stable forecast of welding quality. It performs well under small data and can satisfy the requirement of real-time forecast.

Особенности наложения ультразвуковых колебаний в процессе сварки

Introduction. The main problem in obtaining welded joints is the nonuniform heating of the joint zone, which leads to differences in the structure and properties of the weld metal and the base metal. One of the ways to intensify the welding process is the use of ultrasonic vibrations. As a result of the analysis of methods for introducing ultrasonic vibrations into the melting zone, a method of superimposing vibrations on the elements to be welded was chosen for experimental studies. This method makes it possible to influence the welded elements throughout the entire welding cycle from the melt bath to complete crystallization of the metal. Methods. Experimental studies were carried out on plates made of carbon structural steel St3 (ASTM A568M, AISI 1017, DIN 17100) and aluminum deformable non-hardened alloy AMg4 (EN AW-5086, AW-AL Mg4, 5086). As a source of oscillations, a rod magnetostrictive oscillatory system was used, the end of which was rigidly fixed on one of the welded plates. To determine the places of application of the oscillation source and the welding zone, a calculation method is proposed based on the equality of the resonant frequencies of the used oscillatory system and the natural frequency of bending vibrations of the welding component. It is shown that the optimal places for the application of vibrations and welding will be the antinodes of oscillations, which have the maximum amplitude. Welds were obtained by the method of semi-automatic gas metal arc welding. Results and Discussion. Microstructural study of obtained samples showed a significant decrease in the proportion of dendritic segregation. The changes in the structure are the result of the effects that occur in the liquid melt when ultrasonic vibrations are introduced. The main effects are sound pressure, cavitation and acoustical streaming. The structure change mechanism consists in the dispersion of growing dendrites and crystallization nuclei under the action of shock waves and cumulative jets that occur when cavitation bubbles collapse. The formed fragments of dendrites are new crystallization nuclei that propagate through the melt pool under the action of acoustic currents. Then the process is repeated. The resulting effects affect the kinetics of the crystallization process – the degree of supercooling increases, the number of crystallization nuclei formed per unit time increases, and the rate of its growth decreases. Changes in the structure of the weld metal lead to an increase in the quality of the welded joint, which reduces welding deformations, increases the tensile strength and significantly increases ductility.

Design of a low-cost welding machine controller with a novel control algorithm for an enhanced HF TIG welding process

Automation plays an important role in event welding domain. This paper describes the problems associated with arc tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding for automated welding in oil and gas industry for pipe joints. Welding joints inside the offshore pipelines is a complex process and rework or repetitive work is very costly. Weld imperfections are the foremost anxiety in the pipe joint welding. Return out the entire weld machine to find the defect at the time of welding. This is one of the popular industry come with the problem statement to develop the application specific solution for inner pipe welding quality welding. However, this paper gives the solution. Moreover, factors like Joint crack, moisture, corrugated weld object, excessive gas flow, Lack of fusion in the root, Dirty base or filler metal are major problems in the welding process. Due to these issues weld quality is impacted. There are several problem areas in the existing welding control system i.e., poor topology selection, less efficiency, high power loss, more size, high cost, more maintenance, less effective control algorithm for welding control etc Due to all these factors the welding quality is hampered in traditional welding system. Many researchers have worked on the power electronics hardware section improvement but very less work done on the software section. This paper discusses on the software algorithm development and how the weld quality improved. Software welding algorithm development is the novelty of this paper. This paper proposed and developed low-cost welding machine controller using STM32F103 microcontroller with protection scheme. A welding algorithm is proposed and experimented to enhance arc TIG welding quality and automation. Welding algorithm is tested & practically verified using phase-shifted full bridge (PSFB) power converter topology with pulse width modulation (PWM) control technology. The results reveal that the proposed algorithm significantly improves the quality of automated welding.

Multi-phase field lattice Boltzmann model of columnar-to-equiaxed transition in entire welding molten pool

Columnar-to-equiaxed transition (CET) often occurs during the solidification of the weld. Moving molten pool and strong fluidity are two notable characteristics in this process. The former causes the deflective epitaxial growth of columnar dendrites, while the latter makes the equiaxed dendrites grow asymmetrically and continuously move, collide and coalesce in the melt. This paper proposed a multi-phase field lattice Boltzmann model to simulate the CET in the entire molten pool. The model can characterize the polycrystalline growth, compute the fluid flow, and simulate the solid motion, collision, and coalescence. It also combined the transient growth condition model and the continuous nucleation model to reproduce the moving molten pool and define heterogeneous nucleation respectively. It further combined the initial grain structure of the base metal to provide a more realistic condition for epitaxial growth. The proposed model was verified by simulating the pure motion of dendrite in lid-driven flow, the free fall of single dendrite in static flow, and the single-dendrite growths in lid-driven and channel flow. The CET in the entire molten pool was simulated under different conditions, including considering or ignoring the fluid flow and gravity, the columnar and equiaxed dendrites growing simultaneously or sequentially. In these simulations, settlement, collision, and coalescence of equiaxed dendrites were reproduced successfully. Clear asymmetric growth, dendrite aggregation effect, and solute vortex were found. Significant differences in the size, symmetry, dendrite spacing, dendrite morphology, and solute distribution were found when the melt flow was considered or ignored. The dense equiaxed dendrite belt was found in the later stage of CET. They gathered in front of columnar dendrites and dominated the following solidification. The typical mixed structure that consists of columnar and equiaxed grains was obtained after complete solidification.

Hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength marine steel as a weld joint in artificial seawater under cathodic polarization

Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) behavior of E690 high-strength steel as a weld joint was investigated in artificial seawater. The most vulnerable location and microstructure to HE was verified, and the underlying mechanism was clarified. Results showed that the weld metal with granular bainitic microstructure leads to premature fracture of the entire weld joint under slow strain rate tensile testing with in-situ hydrogen charging. Dislocation slip bands (DSBs) could be preferentially developed in this zone, and HE initiation was induced via dislocation–hydrogen interaction because the weld metal had the lowest local strength among the weld joint. Martensite/austenite (M/A) constituents and carbides could also contribute to crack initiation and propagation through microvoid coalescence and decohesion.

Process Monitoring in Ultrasonic Metal Welding of Lithium Batteries by Power Signals

Abstract Ultrasonic metal welding is one of the key technologies in manufacturing lithium batteries, and the welding quality directly determines the battery performance. Therefore, an online welding process monitoring system is critical in identifying abnormal welding processes, detecting defects, and improving battery quality. Traditionally, the peak welding power is used to indicate abnormal process signals in welding process monitoring systems. However, since various factors have complex impacts on the electric power signals of ultrasonic welding processes, the peak power is inadequate to detect different types of welding defects. Therefore, a signal pattern matching method is proposed in this study, which is based on the electric power signal during the entire welding process and thus is capable of identifying abnormal welding processes in various conditions. The proposed method adopts isometric transformation and homogenization as signal pretreatment methods, and Euclidean distance is used to calculate the similarity metric for signal matching. The effectiveness and robustness of the proposed method are experimentally validated under different abnormal welding conditions.

Convolutional Neural Network Model for the Prediction of Back-Bead Occurrence in GMA Root Pass Welding of V-groove Butt Joint

Gas metal arc (GMA) welding is widely used in the machinery industry. The quality of a welded joint is affected by the penetration of root pass welding in the V-groove joint. Automation using GMA welding is continuously required, and root pass welding automation is required to automate the entire welding process. In particular, the development of a prediction model that can ensure full penetration back-bead is required for the automation of root pass welding. In this study, a convolutional neural network (CNN) model was applied to predict the occurrence of back-bead in V-groove butt joint GMA root pass welding. The bead profile was measured using a laser vision sensor system and it was used as the input data for the prediction model, and the bead occurrence was used as the output data for the model. A total of 12,873 bead profiles were extracted and pre-processed through cutting, resizing, and thresholding. The CNN model consists of nine layers, and performs three convolution and two pooling operations. The accuracy of the prediction model was 99.5%, and through this study, it was demonstrated that the quality of root-pass welding can be controlled by using convolutional neural network and it can contribute to automation.

Welding Distortion Prediction for Multi-Seam Welded Pipe Structures using Equivalent Thermal Strain Method

Distortion prediction of a welded structure is an important way to improve work efficiency and ensure product quality during the fabrication process. Recently, the widely used approaches for evaluating residual deformation include the thermo-elastic-plastic finite element method (TEP-FEM) and the inherent strain method (ISM). The former can accurately simulate the entire welding process with excessive computational time, whereas the latter has great potential in the fast prediction of residual distortion in complex welded components. In this study, an equivalent thermal strain method based on inherent strain theory was proposed to predict residual deformation of the multi-seam welded pipe structures. Moreover, a full 3D TEP-FEM model was also developed to estimate the distributions of inherent strain in longitudinal (L-seam) and circumferential (C-seam) welds. To validate the accuracy of the proposed ISM, the welding distortion predicted by the proposed ISM is compared with the experimental data and TEP-FEM simulation results. It is discovered that the proposed ISM can be used to accurately predict welding-induced deformation in multi-seam welded pipe structures. Furthermore, compared with TEP-FEM simulation, the significant advantage of this approach is that the computing efficiency can be increased by about 50 times.

Mechanism clarification of mitigating welding induced buckling by transient thermal tensioning based on inherent strain theory

Welding induced buckling in thin plate structures significantly affects productivity and fabrication cost due to post-weld correction works. Transient thermal tensioning (TTT) as an in-process treatment was employed for mitigating welding induced buckling, and its mechanism was clarified by inherent strain theory. Butt welding experiment with 304 L stainless steel was conducted. A finite element (FE) model was established to examine thermal-mechanical response during the entire welding process. Computed results were validated by the measured out-of-plane welding distortion, which was obtained using a three-dimensional optical scanning system. Then, two additional heat sources on both sides of the welding line were applied to achieve TTT treatment with the established numerical model. Moreover, the influence of heating location on mitigating welding induced buckling was discussed. The results show that the maximum deflections along and perpendicular to welding direction were reduced by 82.6% and 74.7%, respectively. The heating location has a decisive influence on the mitigation of welding induced buckling, which should be kept away from the welding line with appropriate distance. The thermal stretching from additional heat sources enhances the self-constraint of the base material on the welding region during the cooling process, resulting in more tensile plastic strain generated to reduce welding inherent strain and tendon force.

A modified version of MATLAB application window for predicting the weld bead profile and stress–strain plot of AA5052 CMT weldment using ER4043

The present study deals with the extended version of our previous research work. In this article, for predicting the entire weld bead geometry and engineering stress–strain curve of the cold metal transfer (CMT) weldment, a MATLAB based application window (second version) is developed with certain modifications. In the first version, for predicting the entire weld bead geometry, apart from weld bead characteristics, x and y coordinates (24 from each) of the extracted points are considered. Finally, in the first version, 53 output values (five for weld bead characteristics and 48 for x and y coordinates) are predicted using both multiple regression analysis (MRA) and adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) technique to get an idea related to the complete weld bead geometry without performing the actual welding process. The obtained weld bead shapes using both the techniques are compared with the experimentally obtained bead shapes. Based on the results obtained from the first version and the knowledge acquired from literature, the complete shape of weld bead obtained using ANFIS is in good agreement with the experimentally obtained weld bead shape. This motivated us to adopt a hybrid technique known as ANFIS (combined artificial neural network and fuzzy features) alone in this paper for predicting the weld bead shape and engineering stress–strain curve of the welded joint. In the present study, an attempt is made to evaluate the accuracy of the prediction when the number of trials is reduced to half and increasing the number of data points from the macrograph to twice. Complete weld bead geometry and the engineering stress–strain curves were predicted against the input welding parameters (welding current and welding speed), fed by the user in the MATLAB application window. Finally, the entire weld bead geometries were predicted by both the first and the second version are compared and validated with the experimentally obtained weld bead shapes. The similar procedure was followed for predicting the engineering stress–strain curve to compare with experimental outcomes.

Influence of process parameters on microstructural evolution, solidification mode, and impact strength in joining of stainless steel thin sheets

ABSTRACT Incorrect selection of process parameters corresponds to 45 % of the entire weld imperfections. Selection of process parameters becomes even more critical when the joining is reduced to micro-level. The current experimentation and computational work emphasise the influence of process parameters on joint characteristics of AISI316L and AISI310 thin sheets. Thin sheets fabricated by a micro-plasma arc welding process at different process parameters (PP) PP1 (~524 J/cm), PP2 (~629 J/cm), and PP3 (~733 J/cm) are experimentally analysed to study the variation in microstructural morphology, mode of solidification, and impact toughness. The dependence of the temperature gradient (G) and solidification velocity (R) on the process parameters are also established. Microscopic images confirm the presence of equiaxed and cellular structure depending on the G/R ratio. As the cooling rate decreases, the transformation from δ-ferrite ⟶ γ-austenite is restricted, which changes the δ-ferrite percentage for different weld conditions. Elemental analysis is used to evaluate the Creq/Nieq ratio that predicts the solidification mode using the Schaeffler diagram. The outcome of the present investigation indicates that the highest G/R and maximum G*R corresponds to enhanced joint behaviour due to favourable changes in the metallurgical properties.

Assessment of the hydrogen interaction on the mechanical integrity of a welded martensitic steel

This work evaluates the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical integrity of a weld in a martensitic base metal. Different regions in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) are reproduced to investigate the interaction of the local microstructure with hydrogen. The hardness strongly depends on the distance from the welding joint due to the different phases present. The HAZ contains zones of acicular ferrite, coarse martensite and tempered martensite. Additionally, the entire weld is subjected to a constant load while being simultaneously electrochemically charged with hydrogen. During this test, a crack initiates in the filler, showing the highest hydrogen solubility as demonstrated by thermal desorption spectroscopy, while propagation occurs along the microstructure of the HAZ with the highest hardness level.

Effect of fire exposure on residual stresses relief in welded high strength Q690 steel sections

Welding induced residual stresses in steel sections can be reduced by high temperatures in fire conditions and thus affect the load bearing capacity and stiffness of structural steel members. This paper presents effect of high temperature exposure on residual stresses relief in welded high-strength Q690 steel sections by experimental and numerical studies. The distribution and magnitude of the residual stresses in three Q690 steel H-sections and three Q690 steel box-sections after exposure to 600 °C and 800 °C were investigated by cutting method. In the numerical studies, finite element analysis software ANSYS was employed to simulate residual stress generation and relief in the entire welding and high temperature exposure stages, including the heating and cooling phases. The predicted results of the residual stresses after an exposure to high temperature obtained by the finite element analysis agree well with the test results. Parametric studies were conducted to investigate the influence of exposed temperature, high temperature duration, and creep strain in steel on residual stresses after being exposed to high temperature. For welded Q690 steel H- sections and box-sections, equations to evaluate the corresponding residual stress reduction factor at elevated temperatures and after high temperature exposure were proposed based on the results of finite element analysis.

Numerical analysis of high-speed water jet spot welding using the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) method

The high-speed water jet is used for different manufacturing processes such as cutting, shot peening, cleaning, machining, and spot welding. As water jet spot welding is a concise time welding process, numerical analysis can optimize it and examine the effect of input parameters on plastic deformation and stress distribution that would be difficult to measure experimentally. In this study, the entire water jet spot welding process of aluminum HS30 is modeled through ABAQUS/EXPLICIT based on an arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) formulation which helps to alleviate many of the traditional Lagrangian-based implementation drawbacks. Three-dimensional (3D) models are used to evaluate the effect of water jet velocity, flyer stand-off distance (SD), and flyer thicknesses during the process. The weld’s quality in terms of failure or success is also investigated by using stress and strain measures. Numerical analysis of influence factors can be a promising avenue to avoid high-cost post-production inspection, which is intended for mass production.